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ELEMENTS    OF 
AGRICULTURE 


BY 

G.  F.  WARREN 


PBOFKSSOB  OF  FARM  MANAGEMENT  AND  FARM  CROPS,  NEW  YORK  8TATK  CQIiLBaa 
OF  AGBJOULTURE,  AT  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 


THIRTEENTH  EDITION 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Ltd. 

1913 

All  rights  reserved 


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Copyright,  1909 
By  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.  Published.  July,  1909 

Reprinted  January,  March,  April  and  June,  1910 

December.  1910;  June  and  October.  1911 

January,  February.  June.  1912 

January,  July,  1913 


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jOaount  Pleacant  ^stM 

J.  Horace  McFarland  Company 
Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania 


EDITOR'S   PREFACE 

This  book  is  designed  for  use  in  high-schools,  academies, 
and  normal  schools,  and  in  colleges  when  only  a  short 
time  can  be  given  to  the  subject.  It  is  also  hoped  that 
it  may  be  useful  to  the  farmer  or  general  reader  who 
desires  a  brief  survey  of  agriculture 

So  far  as  I  know,  this  is  the  first  text-book  of  agri- 
culture appearing  in  North  America  in  a  generation,  that 
is  distinctly  of  high-school  grade.  More  than  fifty  text- 
books of  agriculture  have  appeared  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada  since  Daniel  Adams  published  his  "Agricul- 
tural Reader"  in  Boston,  in  1824,  and  J.  Orville  Taylor 
published  his  ''Farmer's  School  Book"  in  Albany  and 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  in  1837.  Nearly  twenty  of  these  appeared 
before  the  founding  of  the  colleges  of  agriculture,  on  the 
land-grant  act  of  1862.  A  number  of  these  early  books 
were  distinctly  scientific  in  treatment,  and  were  adapted 
to  academies  and  other  schools  of  the  rank  of  our  present 
high-schools. 

With  the  founding  of  the  chain  of  agricultural  colleges, 
the  more  full  scientific  treatment  of  the  subject,  so  far 
as  school  texts  are  concerned,  seems  to  have  been  reserved 
for  these  institutions,  and  the  text-books  became  largely 
popular  and  elementary.  This  has  been  the  epoch  of  the 
popularizing  of  science  in  the  schools.  The  last  of  the 
extended  and  technical  school  texts  appears  to  have  been 
Pendleton's,  in  1875.    The  large  number  of  popular  and 

<v) 

814972 


Vi  PREFACE 

practical  school  texts  that  have  appeared  in  the  last  ten 
years  gives  the  teacher  ^'in  the  grades"  a  wide  range  of 
selection.  Some  of  these  texts  are  also  adaptable  to  high- 
schools. 

The  purpose  of  the  present  book  is  to  make  the  teaching 
of  agriculture  in  the  existing  high  -  schools  comparable 
in  extent  and  thoroughness  with  the  teaching  of  physics, 
mathematics,  history  and  literature.  In  fact,  the  chemistry 
and  botany  should,  if  possible,  precede  the  agriculture  as 
given  in  this  book;  and  the  pupil  will  be  all  the  better 
prepared  for  the  subject  if  he  comes  to  it  with  considerable 
other  high-school  training,  for  much  of  the  value  of  the 
work  will  be  conditioned  on  the  student's  maturity  and 
his  experience  with  life.  The  subject  is  not  one  that  can 
be  memorized,  or  even  acquired  in  the  ordinary  method 
of  school  study;  it  must  relate  itself  to  the  actual  work 
and  business  of  the  community  in  such  a  way  as  will 
develop  the  student's  judgment  of  conditions  and  affairs. 

If  this  type  of  text  proves  to  be  useful  in  the  high- 
schools,  then  another  kind  of  book  will  be  necessary 
for  the  grades;  and  this  is  in  course  of  preparation. 

L.  H.  BAILEY. 

THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

The  interest  in  the  teaching  of  agriculture  is  but  a  part 
of  a  much  larger  question, — the  movement  for  teaching 
by  means  of  things  that  have  come  within  the  student's 
experience.  Laboratory  work  and  all  manual  work  are 
but  a  part  of  the  same  movement.  The  primary  purpose 
of  teaching  agriculture  is  not  to  make  farmers.    It  is  a 


PREFACE  vii 

human-interest  subject.  The  underlying  reason  why  such 
teaching  is  desirable  is  because  it  brings  the  schools  in 
touch  with  the  home  life — the  daily  life  of  the  community. 
A  large  part  of  our  teaching  has  had  no  relation  whatever 
to  our  daily  lives. 

To  those  who  are  not  familiar  with  the  nature  of  agri- 
culture teaching,  it  may  seem  Uke  a  trade  subject.  But 
it  is  not  primarily  a  trade  subject.  Only  about  half  of 
our  population  is  engaged  in  agricultural  work.  But 
the  interest  in  agriculture  includes  nearly  all  the  popu- 
lation. A  very  large  part  of  our  city  population,  particu- 
larly of  the  larger  cities,  is  coming  to  take  the  keenest 
interest  in  agricultural  questions.  The  number  of  agri- 
cultural inquiries  that  have  come  to  the  Cornell  Experi- 
ment Station  from  New  York  City  within  the  past  few 
years  is  very  remarkable,  but  no  more  so  than  the  move- 
ment for  the  ownership  and  management  of  farms  by  city 
men.  Nearly  every  one  is  interested  in  growing  plants 
and  animals,  and  there  are  some  fundamental  principles 
of  this  growth  that  every  boy  and  girl  should  have  an 
opportunity  to  learn,  if  they  so  desire, — not  that  they 
may  become  farmers  or  farmers'  wives,  but  for  the  edu- 
cational training  and  intelligent  interest  in  life  that  this 
knowledge  brings.  This  training  is  often  as  desirable 
for  those  who  are  to  live  in  cities  as  for  those  who  are  to 
live  on  farms.  We  can  never  wholly  separate  our  interests 
from  the  soil  on  which  we  walk,  and  the  plants  and  ani- 
mals on  which  our  life  depends. 

It  is  not  desirable  that  a  teacher  try  to  make  farmers 
of  farmers'  sons,  or  lawyers  of  lawyers'  sons.  The  thing 
that   distinguishes   America  from   the   Old   World   is   the 


viii  PREFACE 

mobility  of  its  society.  Each  man  may  do  what  he  Hkes, 
and  become  what  his  energy  will  make  him.  While  it  is 
not  desirable  to  try  to  make  farmers,  it  does  seem  desir- 
able to  stop  unmaking  them.  The  present  trend  of  all 
our  education  is  cityward.  We  have  been  living  in  a  city- 
making  epoch.  The  bright  farm  boy,  as  he  has  attended 
the  village  high-school,  has  been  taught  much  that  would 
naturally  interest  him  in  city  occupations.  The  teacher 
has  become  interested  in  him,  and  has  encouraged  him 
to  ''make  something  of  himself."  This  usually  means 
that  he  become  a  lawyer,  a  doctor  or  perhaps  an  engineer. 
The  nature  of  his  books,  and  the  advice  of  his  friends, 
have  led  him  to  believe  that  these  are  the  Unes  in  which 
mental  ability  will  bring  the  greatest  returns.  If  he 
did  become  a  farmer,  he  frequently  felt  that  by  doing  so 
he  lost  his  real  opportunities.  In  the  past,  this  may  have 
been  so;  but  today,  law,  medicine,  and  the  ministry  are 
not  the  only  learned  professions.  The  practice  of  agricul- 
ture now  offers  as  great  a  field  for  scientific  study  as  is' 
offered  by  the  practice  of  medicine. 

The  teaching  of  agriculture  will  make  better  farmers, 
who  will  make  more  money.  It  will  lead  more  boys  to 
choose  farming  as  a  profession,  because  it  will  open  up  a 
field  for  intellectual  life  whose  existence  they  never  sus- 
pected. But  the  great  reason  for  this  work  is  that  it  is 
one  of  the  best  means  of  training  a  student's  mind,  and  it 
is  one  of  the  best  means  because  it  studies  the  things 
that  come  within  his  experience — the  things  with  which 
and  by  which  he  lives. 

In  preparing  this  book,  the  author  has  tried  to  carry 
out,  as  far  as  possible,  the  recommendations  of  the  com- 


PREFACE  ix 

mittee  on  methods  of  teaching  agriculture  of  the  Asso- 
ciation of  American  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experi- 
ment Stations. 

The  author  will  be  glad  to  correspond  with  teachers 
concerning  difficulties  in  the  work,  and  also  to  receive  sug- 
gestions as  to  changes  that  they  find  desirable  in  the  text. 

G.  F.  WARREN. 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  June  21,  1909. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I 

PAOB 

Introduction 1-4 

"VVTiat  Is  Agriculture,  p.  1;  Divisions  of  Agriculture,  p.  2;  Forces 

Controlling  Plant  and  Animal  Growth,  p.  2;  Heredity,  p.  2; 

Environment,  ■  p.  3. 

Questions 3 

Collateral  Reading 4 

CHAPTER   II 

The  Improvement  of  Plants  and  Animals 5-35 

Variation  in  Plants  and  Animals 5 

Law  of  Variation,  p.  5;  Similar  Produces  Similar,  p.  6. 

Natural  Selection 7 

Sports  and  Mutations,  p.  8;  The  Development  of  Weeds 
by  Natural  Selection,  p.  8;  De  Candolle's  Law,  p.  9. 

Artificial  Selection 10 

Reproduction  in  Plants 11 

Seed-Producing  Organs  of  Plants,  p.  11;  Sexual  and  Asexual 
Reproduction,  p.  12;  Artificial  Crossing,  p.  13. 

Some  Principles  of  Heredity 13 

Problems  of  Heredity,  p.  13;  MMidel's  Law,  p.  14;  Appli- 
cations of  Mendel's  Law,  p.  19. 

Steps  in  Breeding 21 

Increasing  Variation,  p.  21;  Selection,  p.  21;  Testing  Heredi- 
tary Power,  p.  22. 

Improving  Some  Farm  Crops 23 

Plant-Breeding  vs.  Animal-Breeding,  p.  23;  Comparative 
Improvement  of  Different  Crops,  p.  23;  Sugar  Beet,  p.  24; 
Com,  p.  25;  Cotton,  p.  29;  Other  Cross-Fertilized  Plants, 

(xi) 


Xii  CONTENTS 

PAQB 

p.  29;  Oats,  p.  29;  Other  Self-Fertilized  Plants,  p.  30;  Pota- 
toes, p.  30;  How  Often  Do  Potatoes  Need  to  Be  Grown  from 
the  Seed-Ball,  p.  30;  Plant-Breeding  Farms,  p.  31. 

Questions 31 

Laboratory  Exercises 32 

Collateral  Reading 34 

CHAPTER   III 

Propagation  of  Plants 36-59 

Methods  of  Propagation 36 

Spores,  p.  36;  Creeping  Stems  and  Rootstocks,  p.  36;  Roots, 
p.  39;  Tubers,  p.  39;  Cuttings,  p.  41. 

Grafting 42 

Budding,  p.  43;  Root-Grafting,  p.  45;  Top-Grafting,  p.  46; 
Relationship  of  Cion  and  Root,  p.  47;  Effect  of  Root  on  Cion, 
p.  47. 

Seeds 47 

Nature  of  Seeds,  p.  47;  Importance  of  Vigorous  Germina- 
tion, p.  48;  Germination  Tests  of  Seed  Corn,  p.  48;  Seed 
Analysis  and  Valuation,  p.  51;  Germination  Tests,  p.  51; 
Purity  and  Germination  Tests,  p.  52;  What  is  the  Cheapest 
Seed,  p.  52;  Size  and  Weight  of  Seeds,  p.  53;  Seed-Testing 
Is  Plant-Selection,  p.  54;  Storage  of  Seed,  p,  54;  Importation 
of  Low-Grade  Seed,  p.  55. 

Questions 55 

Laboratory  Exercises 56 

Collateral  Reading 59 


CHAPTER   IV 

Plant  Food 60-74 

Elements  Required  for  Plant  and  Animal  Growth,  p.  60;  Sources 
of  Plant  Food,  p.  61;  Water,  Dry  Matter  and  Ash,  p.  62; 
Relative  Amounts  of  the  Different  Elements  in  Plants, 
p.  62;  Elements  Likely  to  Be  Deficient  in  Soils,  p.  63;  Fimc- 
tions  of  the  Different  Elements,  p.  63. 


CONTENTS  xiii 

PAGE 

How  the  Plant  Gets  Its  Food 64 

Root-Hairs,  p.  64;  Osmosis,  p.  65;  Importance  of  Water, 
p.  67;  How  the  Plant  Gets  Its  Food  from  the  Air,  p.  67. 

The  Manufacture  of  Food  Materials 68 

Carbohydrates,  p.  68;  Fats,  p.  68;  Protein,  p.  69;  Plants 
the  Only  Source  of  These  Foods,  p.  69. 

Stored  Food 69 

Periods  in  the  Life  of  a  Plant,  p.  69;  Effect  of  Time  of  Har- 
vesting on  Composition,   p.   71. 

Questions 71 

Laboratory  Exercises 72 

Collateral  Reading 74 

CHAPTER   V 

The  Soil 75-108 

What  Soil  Is 75 

Rock  Particles  of  the  Soil 76 

Amounts  of  Mineral  Matter,  p.  76;  How  the  Size  of  Particles 
Is  Determined,  p.  76;  How  Soils  Are  Named,  p.  78;  Impor- 
tance of  the  Size  of  Particles,  p.  79;  Relation  of  the  Size  of 
Particles  to  Water,  p.  79;  Relation  of  the  Size  of  Particles  to 
Plant  Food,  p.  81;  Size  of  Particles  and  Air,  p.  81;  Size  of 
Particles  and  Temperature,  p.  81;  Size  of  Particles  and 
Crop  Adaptation,  p.  82;  Relation  of  Labor  and  Soil,  p.  82; 
The  Best  Soils,  p.  83;  Flocculation,  p.  83. 

Soil  Water 84 

Importance  of  Soil  Water,  p.  84;  Movement  of  Water  in  the 
Soil,  p.  85;  Conservation  of  Moisture,  p.  85;  Dry  Land  Farm- 
ing, p.  87. 

Irrigation 88 

Areas  Requiring  Irrigation,  p.  88;  Storage  Reservoirs,  p.  89; 
Seepage  from  Canals,  p.  90;  Over-Irrigation,  p.  90;  Alkali, 
p.  90. 

Drainage    91 

Best  Amount  of  Water  for  Crops,  p.  91;  Harmful  Effects 
of  Too  Much  Water,  p.  91;  All  Soils  Require  Drainage,  p.  91; 
Effects  of  Tile  Drainage  During  Drought,  p.  92;  Kinds  of 
Drains,  p.  93;  Laying  Tile  Drains,  p.  93;  Drainage  as  a 
Government  Problem,  p.  94. 


Xiv  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

SoU  Air 94 

Importance  of  Soil  Air,  p.  94. 
Organic  Matter  of  the  Soil    95 

The  Uses  of  Humus,  p.  95;  Humus  of  Arid  and  Humid  Soils, 

p.  96. 
Life  in  the  Soil 97 

Importance  of  Soil  Organisms,  p.  97;  Soil-Bacteria,  p.  97. 

Questions 100 

Laboratory  Exercises 101 

Collateral  Reading 108 

CHAPTER  VI 

Maintaining  the  Fertility  of  the  Land 109-153 

How  Soils  Became  Productive,  p.  109;  How  Rich  Virgin  Soils 
Become  Less  Productive,  p.  109;  Causes  of  Decreased  Produc- 
tivity, p.  Ill;  The  Limiting  Factor  in  Crop  Growth,  p.  112; 
The  Amount  of  Plant  Food  in  the  Soil,  p.  113;  Value  of 
Chemical  Analyses  of  Soils,  p.  113;  Materials  Used  as  Fer- 
tilizers, p.  114. 

Nitrogen 116 

Sources  of  Soil  Nitrogen,  p.  116;  Nitrogen  in  Rainfall, 
p.  116;  Nitrogen  Fixation  by  Bacteria  on  Legumes,  p.  116; 
Fixation  of  Nitrogen  without  Legumes,  p.  119;  Impor- 
tance of  Grasses,  p.  120;  Losses  of  Nitrogen  from  the  Soil, 
p.  121;  Forms  of  Nitrogenous  Fertilizers,  p.  122;  Nitrate  of 
Soda,  p.  122;  Ammonium  Sulfate,  p.  122;  Dried  Blood,  Tank- 
age and  Bone  Meal,  p.  123. 

Phosphorus 123 

Forms  of  Phosphorus  Fertilizers,  p.  123;  Phosphate  Rock, 
p.  123;  Bone,  p.  124;  Thomas  Slag,  p.  124. 

Potash    125 

Forms  of  Potash  Fertilizers,  p.  125;  Kainit,  Muriate  of 
Potash  and  Sulfate  of  Potash,  p.  125;  Wood-Ashes,  p.  125. 

Lime , 126 

Functions  of  Lime,  p.  126;  Relation  of  Crops  to  Lime, 
p.  126;  How  to  Tell  the  Need  of  Lime,  p.  127;  Forms  of  Lime, 
p.  127;  Application  of  Lime,  p.  128. 


CONTENTS 


XV 


PAGS 

Complete  Fertilizers 129 

Cost,  Valuation  and  Analyses,  p.  129;  Home-Mixing  of 
Fertilizers,  p.  131;  How  to  Determine  What .  Fertilizers  to 
Use,  p.  132. 

Barnyard  Manure 135 

Importance  of  Manure,  p.  135;  Value  of  Manure,  p.  135; 
Factors  Influencing  the  Value  of  Manure,  p.  138;  Fertilizing 
Value  of  Food  and  Manure,  p.  138;  Amount  and  Value  of  Ma- 
nure Produced  by  Farm  Animals,  p.  139;  Losses  of  Manure, 
p.  140;  Application  of  Manure,  p.  144. 

Green  Manure 147 

Questions  and  Problems 148 

Laboratory  Exercises ".  .    151 

Collateral  Reading 152 


CHAPTER   VII 

Some  Important  Farm  Crops 154-243 

Relative  Importance  of  the  Different  Crops  of  the  World,  p.  154; 
Relative  Rank  of  the  Different  Crops  in  the  United  States, 
p.  155. 

Com 156 

Historical,  p.  156;  Com  Crop  of  the  World,  p.  156;  Rela- 
tion of  Climate  to  Corn-Production,  p.  157;  Why  We 
Raise  Corn,  p.  159;  Types  of  Com,  p.  161 ;  Fertilizers  for  Corn, 
p.  163;  Plowing  for  Com,  p.  163;  Fitting  the  Land  After 
Plowing,  p.  166;  Planting,  p.  166;  Tillage  After  Planting, 
p.  169;  Harvesting  Corn,  p.  171;  Corn  Silage,  p.  171;  Prin- 
ciple of  the  Silo,  p.  172;  The  Silo,  p.  173;  Growing  Corn  for 
the  Silo,  p.  174;  Feeding  Silage,  p.  176;  Uses  of  Corn,  p.  177. 

Wheat 178 

Importance  of  Wheat,  p.  178;  Types  of  Wheat,  p.  179;  Cul- 
ture of  Wheat,  p.  180. 

Oats   181 

Meadows  and  Pastures 182 

Cultural  Methods,  p.  182;  Hay  and  Pasture  Plants,  p.  184; 
Timothy,  p.  184;  Kentucky  Blue-Grass,  p.  185;  Red-Top, 
p.  186;  Awnless  Brome  Grass,  p.  186;  Tall  Meadow  Fescue, 


Xvi  CONTENTS 

PAOB 

p.  186;  Orchard  Grass,  p.  187;  Bermuda  Grass,  p.  187;  John- 
son Grass,  p.  188;  Alfalfa,  p.  188;  Value  of  Alfalfa,  p.  188; 
Culture  of  Alfalfa,  p.  189;  Red  Clover,  p.  193;  Alsike  Clover, 
p.  194;  White  Clover,  p.  195;  Mixtures  of  Grasses  and 
Clovers,  p.  195;  Management  of  Permanent  Pastures,  p.  197. 

Cotton 198 

Importance  of  Cotton,  p.  198;  Historical,  p.  199;  Develop- 
ment in  the  United  States,  p.  199;  Habits  of  Growth,  200; 
Types  of  Cotton,  201;  Breeding  and  Selection,  202;  Rela- 
tion of  Climate  to  Cotton,  p.  205;  Cotton  Soils,  p.  206;  Prep- 
aration of  the  Soil,  p.  207;  Fertilizers  for  Cotton,  p.  208;  Plant- 
ing and  Cultivating,  p.  209;  Harvesting,  p.  210;  Marketing, 
p.  211;  Grades  of  Cotton,  p.  211;  Cotton  Seed,  p.  212;  Fun- 
gous Diseases  and  Insects  Affecting  Cotton,  p.  214. 

The  Wood  Crop 216 

Forests  of  the  United  States,  p.  216;  The  Settler  and  the 
Forest,  p.  217;  The  Relation  of  Forestry  to  the  Nation, 
p.  218;  Forest  Policy  of  the  Future,  p.  218;  National  Forests, 
p.  219;  Forests  and  Climate,  p.  220;  Conservative  Lumbering, 
p.  221;  Forest  Trees  a  Profitable  Farm  Crop,  p.  222;  The 
Farm  Wood  Lot,  p.  222;  What  Trees  to  Plant,  p.  226. 

Orchards 227 

Setting  Trees,  p.  227;  Tillage  of  Orchards,  p.  228;  Spraying 
Orchards,  p.  229;  Pruning,  p.  230. 

Shade  Trees 233 

The  Farm  Garden 234 

Questions  and  Problems 237 

Laboratory  Exercises 238 

Collateral  Reading 242 

CHAPTER   VIII 

Enemies  of  Farm  Crops 244-271 

Weeds 244 

What  Is  a  Weed,  p.  244;  Value  of  Weeds,  p.  244;  The  Control 
of  Weeds,  p.  245;  The  Control  of  Weeds  in  Tilled  Crops, 
p.  245;  Subduing  Land  That  Is  Badly  Infested  with  Weeds, 
p.  246;  Spraying  for  Wild  Mustard,  p.  246;  Control  of  Weeds 
in  Walks,  p.  247. 


CONTENTS 


XVll 


PAGE 

Diseases  of  Plants 248 

Bacterial  Diseases,  p.  248;  An  Example  of  a  Bacterial  Disease, 

p.  249. 
Fungous  Diseases,  p.  250;  Characteristics  of  Fungi,  p.  250; 
An  Example  of  a  Fungous  Disease,  p.  252;  Other  Fungous 
Diseases,  p.  253, 
Parasitic  Flowering  Plants,   p.  254. 

Insects 255 

Importance  of  Insects,  p.  255;  What  an  Insect  Is,  p.  255; 
Stages  in  the  Life  of  an  Insect,  p.  256;  The  Control  of  In- 
sects, p.  258;  Chewing  and  Sucking  Insects,  p.  259. 

Spraying  for  the  Control  of  Insects  and  Diseases 260 

Common  Fungicides  and  Insecticides,  p.  260;  Spraying 
for  Fungi,  p.  261;  The  Preparation  of  Bordeaux  Mixture, 
p.  263;  Poisons,  p.  264;  Contact  Remedies,  p.  264;  Com- 
bined Insecticides  and  Fungicides,  p.  265. 

Questions 266 

Laboratory  Exercises 267 

Collateral  Reading 270 

CHAPTER   IX 

Systems  of  Cropping 272-280 

The  Choice  of  Crops,  p.  272;  The  Rotation  of  Crops,  p.  273;  Crop- 
Rotation  and  Diversified  Crops,  p.  273;  Advantages  of 
Crop-Rotation,  p.  274;  Profits  from  Rotation,  p.  277;  Crop- 
Rotation  and  Crop  Failure,  p.  277;  Variation  of  Crop 
Areas,  p.  278;  Examples  of  Rotations,  p.  278. 

Questions 280 

Laboratory  Exercises 280 

Collateral  Reading     280 

CHAPTER  X 

Feeds  and  Feeding 281-300 

Importance  of  Animal  Food  and  Work   281 

Composition  of  Feeds 282 

Water,  p.  282;  Ash,  p.  283;  Protein,  p.  283;  Ether  Extract 


Xviii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

or  Fat,  p.  283;  Crude  Fiber,  p.  284;  Nitrogen-Free  Extract, 
p.  284;  Composition  of  Feeds  and  Products  Compared, 
p.  284. 

Functions  of  the  Different  Food  Materials 285 

Water,  p.  285;  Ash,  p.  285;  Protein,  p.  286;  Fats,  p.  286; 
Carbohydrates,  p.  286. 

Digestibility  of  Feeds 287 

Feeds  Differ  in  Digestibility,  p.  287;  Digestible  Nutrients 
in  Feeds,  p.  288;  Effect  of  Time  of  Harvesting  on  Digesti- 
bility, p.  288. 

Maintenance  and  Productive  Values 289 

Maintenance,  p.  289;  External  Work,  p.  289;  Production, 
p.  289;  Energy  Lost  in  Digestion  and  in  Production,  p.  289; 
Comparison  of  Concentrates  and  Roughage,  p.  291. 

Balanced  Rations 292 

Food  Requirements  of  Different  Animals,  p.  292;  Carbo- 
hydrate Equivalent  of  Fat,  p.  293;  Nutritive  Ratio,  p.  293; 
Feeding  Standards,  p.  293;  Computing  Rations,  p.  293; 
Another  Method  of  Computing  Rations,  p.  296;  Cautions 
in  Using  Balanced  Rations,  p.  296. 

Comfort  of  Animals 297 

Relation  of  the  Animal  to  Profits 297 

Condimental  Foods 298 

Questions  and  Problems 298 

Collateral  Reading 299 

CHAPTER   XI 

The  Horse 301-321 

Substitution  of  Horse  Power  for  Man  Power,  p.  301;  Types  of 
Horses,  p.  302;  Draft  Horses  and  Horses  for  Speed,  p.  303; 
Breeds  of  Horses,  p.  307;  How  to  Tell  the  Age  of  Horses,  p. 
308;  Care  of  Horses,  p.  311;  Training  Horses,  p.  315;  Rules 
of  the  Road,  p.  316. 

Questions 317 

Laboratory  Exercises 318 

Collateral  Reading * 321 


CONTENTS  xix 

CHAPTER   XII 

PAGE 

Cattle 322-350 

Forms  of  Beef  and  Dairy  Cattle,  p.  323;  Care  of  Beef  and 

Dairy  Cattle,  p.  324;  Breeds  of  Cattle,  p.  325;  Pedigrees, 

p.  330;  Value  of  Pedigrees,  p.  331;  Advanced  Registry,  p. 

332;  Grading  Up  a  Herd,  p.  333. 
Cattle  Products 333 

Beef,  p.  333;  Milk,  p.  334;  Composition  of  Milk,  p.  334; 

Clean  Milk,  p.  334;  Commercial  Forms  of  Milk,  p.  335; 

Babcock  Milk  Test,  p.  336;  Dairy  Records,  p.  337. 
Diseases  of  Cattle 337 

Tuberculosis,  p.  337;  Milk  Fever,  p.  340;  Black-Leg,  p.  341; 

Texas  Fever,  p.  341. 

Questions 342 

Laboratory  Exercises 342 

Collateral  Reading 349 

CHAPTER   XIII 

Sheep 351-356 

Types  of  Sheep,  p.  351;  Breeds  of  Sheep,  p.  351;  Sheep  Industry 

in  America,  p.  355. 
Collateral  Reading 356 

CHAPTER   XIV 

Swine .357-362 

Distribution  of  Hogs,  p.  357;  Breeds  of  Hogs,  p.  358;  Care  of 
Hogs,  p.  360;  Hog  Diseases,  p.  301. 

Questions     361 

Collateral  Reading 361 

CHAPTER   XV 

Poultry 363-371 

Importance   of   Poultry,    p.   363;    Breeds   of  Poultry,   p.   363; 
Feeding  Poultry,  p.  365;  Poultry  Houses,  p.  366. 


XX  CONTENTS 

PAOB 

Questions 368 

Laboratory  Exercises 368 

Collateral  Reading 371 


CHAPTER   XVI 

Farm  Management 372-388 

What  Is  Farm  Management? 372 

The  Choice  of  a  Farm 373 

Size  of  Farms,  p.  373;  Shape  and  Location  of  Fields,  p.  374; 
Topography,  p.  375;  Soils,  p.  375;  Neighbors,  p.  376;  Improve- 
ments, p.  377;  Other  Factors  Affecting  Farm  Values,  p.  377; 
Working  Capital,  p.  377. 

Farm  Labor 377 

Farm  Records  and  Accounts    380 

Kinds  of  Accounts  to  Keep,  p.  380;  Methods  of  Keeping 
Accounts,  p.  380. 

Questions 384 

Laboratory  Exercises 385 

Collateral  Reading 388 

CHAPTER   XVII 

The  Farm  Home 389-395 

The  Farmyard,  p.  389;  The  Farmhouse,  p.  391;  Modern  Con- 
veniences for  the  Farm  Home,  p.  391. 

Laboratory  Exercises 395 

Collateral  Reading 395 

CHAPTER   XVIII 

The  Farm  Community 396-399 

Questions 398 

Collateral  Reading 399 


CONTENTS 


XXI 


Table  1. 
Table  2. 
Table    3. 


Table    4. 


Table    5. 

Table    6. 

Table    7. 

Table    8. 

Table    9. 

Table  10. 

Table  11. 

Table  12. 

Table  13. 

Table  14. 

Table  15. 

Table  16, 

APPENDIX 

PAGD 

Apparatus  and  Equipment 400 

Agricultural  Library    401 

Addresses  of  the  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experi- 
ment Stations,  and  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  and  the  Canadian  Agricultural 

Addresses 403 

Length  of  Time  Seeds  Maintain  Their  Vitality 405 

Quantity  of  Seeds  per  Acre 405 

Legal  Weights  in  Pounds  Per  Bushel 406 

Fertilizing  Constituents  in  Various  Substances 408 

Feeding  Standards 409 

Digestible  Nutrients  in  Various  Feeding-Stuffs 410 

Production  Values  of  Various  Feeding-Stuffs 411 

Average  Weights  of  Various  Feeding-Stuffs 412 

Values  of  Leading  Agricultural  Products 413 

Agriculture  Compared  with    Manufacturing.     (Capital, 

Horse  Power,  Exports  and  Imports  compared.)  ...   414 

Values  of  Agricultural  Imports  and  Exports 414 

Average  Yields  of  Crops  by  Ten- Year  Periods.  (Acreage, 
Production,  Value,  Yields  Per  Acre,  and  Prices  Per 

Bushel) 416,  417 

Farm  Animals  by  Ten- Year  Periods.     (Total  Number 

and  Value,  and  Value  Per  Head) 418 

Various  Statistics  Showing  the  Progress  of  Agriculture. 
(Total  Population,  Number  of  Farms,  Total  Area  of 
Farm  Land,  Area  of  Improved  Land,  Average  Area 
Per  Farm,  Average  Improved  Area  Per  Farm, 
Value  of  All  Farm  Property,  Value  Per  Farm, 
Value  of  Farm  Land,  Average  Value  Per  Acre,  Aver- 
age Value  of  Farm  Implements  Per  Farm  and  Per 
Acre,  Value  of  Live  Stock,  Value  of  Live  Stock  Per 
Farm  and  Per  Acre,  Value  of  Farm  Products  not 
Fed  to  Live  Stock,  Average  Value  Per  Farm  and 
Per  Acre,  Total  Expenditures   for  Fertilizers,   Per 


Xxii  CONTENTS 

PAOB 

Cent  of  Rented  Farms,  Number  of  Acres  Per  Male 
Worker,    Number    of    Horses    Per    Male   Worker, 

Number  of  Acres  Per  Horse) 418,  419 

Table  17.  Average  Wages  of  Farm  Labor 420 

Table  18.  Rules.    (Measuring  Grain,  Ear  Corn,  Hay  and  Land)  .  .   420 

INDEX 421-434 


PLATES 

FACING   PAGE 

1.  One   solution   of  the  farm   labor  problem.    One  man  doing 

more  work  than  two  would  do  with  walking  plows.    John 
Deere  Plow  Co Frontispiece 

2.  Sixty-five  Mayweeds.   No  two  alike.     B.  D.  Halsiead 5 

3.  Hybrid  squashes.   B.  D.  Halstead 5 

4.  An  excellent  cow  who  is  the  mother  of  good  cows.    Correct 

Principle  in  Breeding,    H.  A.  Moyer 22 

5.  Reid's  yellow  dent  corn.    Result  of. fifty  years  of  selection. 

A.  D.  Shamel 49 

6.  Timothy  hay  responds  to  fertilizers.     J.  W.  Gilmore 132 

7.  Timothy  hay  responds  to  barnyard  manure.    J .  W.  Gilmore.  .  132 

8.  Field  of  com  on  which  a  weeder  was  used  before  cultivating. 

G.  F.  Warren 168 

9.  Field  of  corn  on  adjoining  farm  on  which  a  weeder  was  not 

used.  G.  F.  Warren 168 

10.  Distribution  of  corn  roots  sixty  days  after  planting.    A.  M. 

Ten  Eyck 171 

11.  A  good  field  of  wheat  in  New  York 178 

12.  A  good  pasture  in  New  York, — the  Roberts  pasture.   Samuel 

Fraser 197 

13.  A  poor  pasture  adjoining  the  Roberts  pasture.   Samuel  Fraser .  .    197 

14.  Destructive  lumbering.    Yearbook,    United   States    Department 

of  Agriculture 216 

15.  Conservative  lumbering.    Yearbook,   United  States  Department 

of  Agriculture 216 

17.  An  ideal  Baldwin  apple  tree  for  the  northeastern  states.  G.  F. 

Warren 227 

18.  A  good  spray  rig  for  a  small  orchard.    G.  F.  Warren 244 

19.  Oats  sprayed  for  killing  wild  mustard.   G.  F.  Warren. , 244 

(xxiii) 


XXIV  PLATES 

FACING    PAQB 

20.  Cutting  com  for  the  silo.   Johnson  Harvester  Co 281 

21.  Filling  a  silo.   E.  R.  Minns 281 

22.  White  Leghorn  cock 363 

23.  White  Leghorn  hen 363 

24.  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  cock.    Wm.  Ellery  Bright 363 

25.  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  hen.    Wm.  Ellery  Bright 363 

Figs.  16-18,  20-23,  25-27,  38-40,  44  and  45  were  secured  from 
the  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture.  A  few  figures  were  repro- 
duced from  the  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture.  All  other  figures 
were  drawn  for  this  book,  unless  acknowledged  where  published. 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 


CHAPTER   I 
INTRODUCTION 

1.  What  is  Agriculture?  Agriculture  is  the  production 
of  plants  and  animals  that  are  useful  to  man. 

It  is  the  fundamental  occupation  on  which  all  mining, 
manufacturing  and  commerce  depend.  Of  course,  no 
complex  civiUzation  could  develop  without  these  occu- 
pations. All  are  essential  for  a  high  civilization,  but  agri- 
culture is  essential  for  any  civilization. 

Agriculture  is  a  combination  of  science,  art  and  business. 
A  good  farmer  needs  to  have  executive  ability,  and  should 
be  a  good  business  man.  He  needs  to  be  skilful  with  his 
hands  in  farm  operations.  The  reasons  for  all  his  farm 
practices  are  based  on  scientific  principles.  He  may  learn 
to  become  a  good  farmer  by  imitation,  in  which  case  he 
applies  scientific  principles  without  knowing  it.  One  who 
understands  the  principles  involved  will  be  able  to  adapt 
his  practice  to  new  and  ever  changing  conditions.  He 
will  be  resourceful. 

To  be  able  to  understand  the  reasons  for  farm  prac- 
tices requires  some  knowledge  of  the  sciences,  such  as 
botany,  chemistry,  physics,  meteorology,  bacteriology, 
zoology,  geology,  animal  and  plant  diseases.  In  short, 
A      .  (1) 


.^  ^\  \  *•  ;  ;  -:  SI^MENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

'  .^yefy  jS'Cci^cti  t'hat  deals  with  the  factors  of  plant  and 
animal  growth  contributes  to  the  science  of  agriculture. 
It  involves  more  problems  than  any  other  occupation, — 
unless  it  be  housekeeping.  It  used  to  be  said  that  any  one 
could  farm.  But  this  was  merely  another  way  of  saying 
that  farming  was  such  a  difficult  study  that  no  one  knew 
much  about  it,  and  that  all,  therefore,  stood  on  an  equal 
footing.  Now  we  say  that  it  requires  as  much  mental  alert- 
ness and  education  to  be  a  good  farmer  as  to  be  a  lawyer, 
doctor,  or  merchant;  which  is  another  way  of  saying  that 
much  is  now  known  about  agriculture,  so  that  one  who 
does  not  avail  himself  of  this  knowledge  is  handicapped. 

2.  Divisions  of  Agriculture.  Agriculture  has  many  sub- 
divisions.   The  more  important  ones  are: 

(1)  Crop-growing  (or  crop  husbandry),  including  grain- 
growing,  forage-cropping,  fruit-growing,  forestry,  floricul- 
ture, cotton-growing,  vegetable-gardening,  and  the  like. 

(2)  Live-stock-growing  (or  animal  husbandry),  as  cattle- 
raising,  horse-raising,  swine-raising,  sheep-raising,  poultry- 
raising,  apiculture,  fish-culture,  etc. 

(3)  Manufacture  (or  agricultural  technology),  as  butter- 
making,  cheese-making,  cider-making,  canning,  evaporat- 
ing, and  such  other  manufacturing  as  is  done  on  the  farms 
or  in  close  association  with  farms. 

3.  Forces  Controlling  Plant  and  Animal  Growth.  There 
are  two  forces  that  control  all  plant  and  animal  growth: 
heredity  and  environment.  Heredity  is  the  transmission 
of  characters  from  the  parent  to  the  offspring.  Environ- 
ment includes  all  the  external  influences  and  conditions, 
such  as  heat,  light,  food  supply,  struggle  for  existence. 

4.  Heredity.    A  cauliflower  seed  looks  just  like  a  cab- 


INTRODUCTION  3 

bage  seed,  but,  when  planted  in  the  same  row,  one  develops 
into  a  cauliflower  and  the  other  into  a  cabbage.  They 
never  make  a  mistake  and  grow  into  the  wrong  plant. 
Evidently  the  seed,  or  embryo,  had  its  future  character- 
istics quite  definitely  fixed  before  it  left  the  seed-pod. 
Two  varieties  of  corn  may  be  planted  in  the  same  field 
and  given  identical  care,  and  yet  one  yield  twice  as  much 
as  the  other.  A  Hereford  and  a  Jersey  calf  may  be  raised 
in  the  same  pasture,  but  one  will  develop  into  a  heavy 
beef  animal  and  one  into  a  dairy  animal.  Two  Jersey 
cows  may  be  raised  in  the  same  herd  and  fed  exactly  alike, 
yet  one  may  give  twice  as  much  milk  as  the  other. 

5.  Environment.  Two  farmers  may  plant  corn  from 
the  same  bag,  but  one  gets  twice  as  large  a  crop  as  the 
other.  Perhaps  they  planted  at  different  times,  stirred  the 
soil  differently,  or  fertilized  differently.  A  farmer  may 
have  two  cows  that  are  giving  the  same  amount  of  milk, 
but  when  one  is  sold  to  a  neighbor  she  may  produce  twice 
as  much  as  formerly,  because  of  a  better  environment. 

Nearly  all  farm  operations  that  have  to  do  with  plant 
or  animal  production  are  performed  for  the  purpose  of 
modifying  either  the  heredity  or  the  environment. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Which  of  the  four  great  industries,  Agriculture,  Mining,  Manu- 
facturing, or  Transportation  is  most  important  in  your  county?  In 
your  state? 

2.  Give  some  facts  showing  the  relative  importance  of  agriculture 
and  other  industries  in  the  United  States.  (See  Appendix,  Tables  12 
and  13.) 

3.  Which  of  the  divisions  of  agriculture  is  most  important  in 
your  county?  In  your  state?  For  the  United  States?  (See  Appendix, 
Table  11.) 


4  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

4.  What  are  the  most  important  farm  crops,  fruits  and  vegetables 
of  the  region? 

5.  What  is  the  relative  importance  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  hogs, 
poultry,  in  the  region? 

6.  What  crops  and  animals  are  shipped  out  of  the  region? 

7.  What  crops  or  animals  are  used  in  manufacturing  in  the  region? 

8.  What  is  the  etymological  meaning  of  agriculture?  Horticulture? 
(See  dictionary.) 

9.  Where  is  your  State  Experiment  Station  located?    Your  Agri- 
cultural College?    (See  Appendix,  Table  3.) 

10.  What  kinds  of  work  does  each  conduct?  What  work  is  done  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture? 

11.  What  publications  are  available  from  each  of  these  organi 
zations,  and  how  may  they  be  secured?    (See  Appendix,  Tables  2  and  3.} 

12.  What  state  organizations  of  farmers  are  there  in  your  state? 

COLLATERAL  READING 

Principles  of  Agriculture,  by  L.  H.  Bailey.    Pp.  1-15. 
Cereals  in  America,  by  T.  F.  Hunt.   Pp.  1-13. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  by  L.  H.  Bailey.  Vol.  1,  pp.  7-14 
Also  choose  your  state  from  pp.  29-97. 


i 


o  •>•*.•_ 


Fig,  1.     Sixty-five  mayweeds — no  two  alike 


•     *  •  •  ,.«  *    V 


Fig.  2.     Hybrid  squashes.    Croc  knack  upper  row  on  the  left,  scallop  lower 
row  on  right.  The  others  are  hybrids  between  these  two 


CHAPTER   II 
THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS 

6.  Variation  in  Plants  and  Animals.  No  two  persons 
are  alike,  nor  are  any  two  living  things  alike,  be  they  plants 
or  animals.  Two  corn  plants  grown  side  by  side  are  dif- 
ferent in  innumerable  ways.  They  differ  in  height,  in 
diameter,  in  size  of  leaves,  amount  of  roots,  size  of  ears, 
number  of  kernels,  size  and  shape  of  kernels,  size  of  em- 
bryo, chemical  composition  of  kernels,  etc.  In  fact,  they 
differ  in  every  characteristic  that  can  be  named.  No  two 
cows  are  alike.  They  differ  in  color,  size,  shape,  milk- 
production,  disposition.  Some  cows  produce  milk  with 
2  per  cent  of  fat,  and  others  as  high  as  8  per  cent.  Some 
can  produce  three  times  as  much  butter-fat  as  others  from 
the  same  feed.  No  matter  on  what  basis  we  make  the 
comparison,  we  shall  always  find  differences.  (See  Figs.  1, 
3,  11.) 

7.  Law  of  Variation.  Tne  heights  of  many  men  of  the 
same  race  and  country  were  arranged  in  order  by  Gal- 
ton.  Fig.  4  represents  a  line  drawn  over  the  heads  of  a 
thousand  men  when  thus  arranged  in  order  of  height. 
From  this  arrangement  he  found: 

(1)  That  the  middle  man  represents  the  average  height 
of  all  the  men. 

(2)  That  the  line  drawn  over  their  heads  was  nearly 
horizontal,  except  at  the  ends. 

(3)  That  near  the  upper  and  lower  ends  the  changes 
r  (5) 


6 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 


were  rapid,  that   is,  there  are  a  few   dwarfs   and  a  few 
giants. 

In  other  words,  the  great  majority  of  the  men  were 
of  nearly  the  same  height,  being  from  a  little  over  five  feet 
to  six  feet.  But  there  were  a  few  extremely  short  ones 
and  a  few  extremely  tall  ones.  These  principles  apply 
when  we  consider  any  character  of  any  living  thing. 


Fig.  3.     Variation  in  timothy  heads.   No  two  are  aUke 

Fig.  5  shows  the  egg-production  of  65  hens  for  a  year. 
The  number  of  eggs  varied  from  none  to  170.  The  number 
is  too  small  to  give  a  smooth  curve,  but  the  same  general 
shape  is  indicated  as  that  in  Fig.  4. 

8.  Similar  Produces  Similar.  It  is  often  said  that  like 
produces  like,  but  this  is  not  strictly  accurate.  No  two 
beings  are  aUke.  The  members  of  one  family  are  usually 
similar  in  many  ways,  but  no  two  are  alike.    In  fact,  the 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS 


-^=== 

■ 

Fig.  4.     Heights  of  a  thousand  men  arranged  in  order.    The  great  majority 
differ  by  small  amounts.  There  are  a  few  giants  and  a  few  dwarfs 

tendency  to  vary  may  be  said  to  be  one  of  the  characters 
that  is  inherited. 

9.  Natural  Selection.  There  is  room  in  the  world  for 
only  a  small  proportion  of  the  plants  and  animals  that 
begin  life.  A  single  corn  plant  usually  has  five  hun- 
dred to  a  thousand  kernels.  If  all  were  planted  and 
grew,  the  entire  world  would  soon  be  a  corn-field.  A 
morning-glory  plant  may  produce  several  thousand  seeds. 
A  puff-ball  produces  millions  of  spores,  each  of  which  is 
ready  to  grow  if  given  proper  conditions.  Since  the  total 
number  of  plants  cannot  greatly  increase,  it  is  evident 
that  only  a  few  of  the  hundreds  or  thousands  of  seeds 
produced  by  one  plant  can  grow.  All  the  others  must  be 
crowded  out.  If  a  thousand  plants  come  up  where  there 
is  room  for  but  one,  the  strong  will  overshadow  the  weak 


,60 ^ 

°° /■  '  

Z 7'" :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::i: 

"^.::z.::::....::- - i; 

3  lO  15  20  85  3d  33  '♦O  *5  50  55  SO  ^ 

Fig.  5.     Egg  production  of  65  hens  for  one  year.   The  number  varied  from 

to  170 


8  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

and  eventually  kill  them.  These  will  in  turn  raise  seed, 
^nd  the  process  will  be  repeated.  Thus,  the  weak,  the  ill- 
adapted,  are  always  being  eliminated.  This  constant  se- 
lection of  the  strongest,  the  ones  adapted  to  the  conditions 
under  which  they  are  to  live,  may  eventually  result  in  a 
changed  type.  There  are  countless  examples  of  changes 
that  were  probably  brought  about  in  this  way. 

10.  Sports,  or  Mutations.  Sometimes  a  plant  appears 
that  is  quite  unlike  its  brothers.  Usually,  such  a  one  does 
not  have  the  power  to  transmit  its  qualities  to  succeeding 
generations.  The  offspring  revert  to  the  former  type. 
Such  a  new  form  is  also  likely  to  be  poorly  adapted  to  the 
environment,  so  that  it  is  quickly  exterminated.  But, 
occasionally,  a  sport  may  occur  that  is  better  adapted 
to  the  environment  than  the  type  from  which  it  came, 
and  that  also  has  the  power  to  impress  its  characters  on 
its  offspring.  In  such  a  case,  it  will  crowd  the  old  form 
out  and  give  a  new  type  in  its  place.  Such  a  change  might 
be  rather  rapid  as  compared  with  the  ones  produced  by 
natural  selection  alone.  The  polled  Shorthorn  and  Here- 
ford cattle  are  sports.  Usually  such  sports  are  lost  by  breed- 
ing with  the  common  type. 

11.  The  Development  of  Weeds  by  Natural  Selection. 
Our  common  weeds  are  a  good  example  of  the  adaptation 
of  plants  to  particular  conditions.  Nearly  all  of  our  bad 
weeds  are  natives  of  Europe.  For  centuries  they  have  been 
growing  in  the  cultivated  fields,  until  each  has  developed 
certain  characteristics  that  have  enabled  it  to  persist  in 
competition  with  the  crops  and  in  spite  of  man's  efforts 
to  subdue  it.  Only  a  few  of  the  native  American  plants 
are  able  to  persist  in  cultivated  fields;  but  these  foreigners, 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS  9 

because  of  their  development  for  just  such  conditions, 
are  able  to  live.  Possibly,  in  succeeding  centuries  we  may 
have  more  of  our  native  plants  added  to  the  hst  of  ''worst 
weeds." 

12.  De  Candolle's  Law.  By  the  process  of  natural  selec- 
tion, plants  have  become  adapted  to  the  cUmate  in  which 
they  live,  and  have  thereby  become  ill  adapted  to  cHmates 
farther  north  or  south.  Seed  of  box  elder  (Acer  Negundo) 
grown  at  St.  Louis  is  not  hardy  in  northern  Iowa,  although 
no  botanical  differences  are  observable.  The  American 
plum  (Prunus  Americana)  is  hardy  in  Nebraska;  but 
when  these  trees  are  taken  to  Texas  they  winter-kill, 
because  they  start  too  early  in  the  spring.  Red  cedars 
(Juniperus  communis)  grow  from  North  Dakota  to 
Tennessee;  but  when  seed  from  either  region  is  taken  to 
the  other  the  trees  produced  are  not  hardy.  De  Candolle, 
who  made  a  careful  study  of  the  matter,  concluded  that 
native  forms  are  not  hardy  when  taken  one  hundred 
miles  north  or  south  of  their  source. 

This  adaptation  to  climate  deserves  more  attention 
than  is  often  given  to  it.  Northern  varieties  of  apples, 
grapes,  peaches,  oats,  and  corn,  are  not  usually  adapted 
to  southern  conditions,  nor  are  the  southern  varieties 
usually  desirable  in  the  North.  The  Baldwin  apple,  which 
constitutes  the  greater  part  of  the  New  York  apple  or- 
chards, is  not  profitable  in  Delaware.  The  Ben  Davis, 
which  is  the  most  important  apple  in  Missouri,  is  not 
desirable  so  far  north  as  New  York.  Alfalfa  seed  from 
southern  Europe  is  not  hardy  in  northern  United  States, 
but  much  of  this  seed  is  sold  in  New  York.  Corn  does 
not  mature  properly  when  seed  is  obtained  from  a  hun- 


10  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

dred  miles  south.  Much  of  the  seed  corn  for  northeastern 
United  States  is  grown  in  Illinois  and  Iowa,  but  it  does 
not  always  mature  to  the  proper  stage  for  making  silage. 

It  is  sometimes  good  farm  management  to  obtain 
seed  from  a  climate  where  more  vigorous  seed  is  produced, 
or  where  it  can  be  grown  at  less  cost;  but  for  most  of  our 
farm  crops  it  is  better  to  have  the  seed  grown  in  the  region 
where  it  is  to  be  planted.  If  not  so  grown,  it  is  usually 
advisable  to  secure  it  from  a  region  that  has  a  similar 
climate. 

13.  Artificial  Selection.  For  centuries,  man  has  been 
saving  the  best  plants  and  animals.  In  this  way,  the 
changes  have  been  much  more  rapid  than  they  would  have 
been  if  natural  selection  had  acted  alone.  Corn  and  wheat 
are  so  changed  from  the  original  forms  that  there  is  a 
question  as  to  what  the  original  forms  were.  Probably 
the  Indians  had  been  selecting  corn  for  centuries  before 
Columbus  discovered  America. 

Artificial  selection  has  often  developed  varieties  that 
could  not  persist  under  natural  conditions.  We  desire 
apples  with  much  pulp  and  few  seeds.  Natural  selection 
produced  apples  with  little  pulp  and  many  seeds.  In  the 
time  of  Pliny,  apples  were  so  sour  that  he  said  they 
would  turn  the  edge  of  a  knife.  Sour  apples  seem  to 
have  been  best  able  to  persist  under  natural  conditions. 

In  other  cases,  man  has  aided  the  natural  develop- 
ment. The  corn  plant  that  produces  few  kernels,  or  that 
does  not  mature,  is  discarded  by  the  farmer.  The  wheat 
that  succumbs  to  rust  is  discarded.  Cattle  that  do  not 
thrive  on  the  range  are  eliminated  by  the  cattleman. 

Only   within   the   last   century   has   the   improvement 


REPRODUCTION  IN  PLANTS 


11 


of  plants  been  taken  up  in  a  scientific  manner.  The  achieve- 
ments of  these  years  have  been  remarkable.  Much  of  this 
development  has  been  due  to  an  increased  knowledge  of 
the  laws  of  heredity. 


REPRODUCTION    IN   PLANTS^ 


of    Plants.     Fig.    6 
The  essential   parts 


14.  The    Seed-Producing    Organs 

shows  the  parts  of  a  pea-blossom. 
are  the  stamens  and  the  pistil.  The 
stamens  are  made  up  of  two  parts, 
the  filament  and  the  anther.  Their 
function  is  to  bear  the  pollen  grains 
which  the  anther  contains.  The  pis- 
til has  three  parts,  ovary,  style  and 
stigma.  The  ovary  contains  the  ovules 
that  are  to  be  fertilized  and  that  will 
then  grow  to  be  seeds.  The  stigma 
receives  the  pollen  grains.  The  pollen 
grains  start  to  grow  when  they  come 
in  contact  with  the  stigma.  This 
growth  eventually  reaches  the  ovules. 
The  protoplasm  of  the  pollen  unites 
with  the  ovule,  and  a  new  plant  is 
formed.  We  recognize  this  new  plant 
as  the  embryo  of  a  bean  or  kernel  of 
corn.  The  parent  plant  furnishes  the  food  for  its  first 
growth,  and  a  supply  is  stored  up  to  give  the  seed  a  start 
in  Ufe  when  it  separates  from  the  mother  plant.  But  the 
embryo  is  a  new  plant  as  soon  as  the  pollen  grain  unites 

^This  subject  is  assumed  to  have  been  studied  in  botany.    Only  a  brief 
review  is  given  here. 


Fig.  6.  Section  of  a  pea 
blossom.  S,  sepal,  one  di- 
vision of  the  calyx;  K,  B, 
divisions  of  the  corolla; 
Sta,  anthers  of  the  sta- 
mens; O,  Sty,  St,  parts  of 
the  pistil ;  O,  ovary  ;  Sty, 
style;  St,  stigma. 


12 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  7.   Ear  of  corn  that  grew  on  an  isolated 
stalk.   Only  a  few  kernels  formed.    Why? 


with  the   ovule.     Thereafter,    the    parent    plant    has    no 
influence  on  it  except  to  furnish  food. 

If  an  ovule  is  not  fertilized,  it  fails  to  develop  into  an 
embryo.  When  shelHng  peas,  we  often  see  small  traces  of 
peas  two    or   three   times   as   large  as  a  pinhead.    These 

were  ovules  that  were 
not  fertilized.  If  an  ear 
of  corn  is  to  fill  out, 
every  silk  must  receive 
one  pollen  grain.  Most 
ears  of  corn  have  a  few 
missing  kernels  because 
some  ovules  were  not  fertihzed.  The  remarkable  thing 
is  that  ears  are  so  well  filled.    (Fig.  7.) 

15.  Sexual  and  Asexual  Reproduction.  When  the  new 
plant  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  bits  of  protoplasm, 
it  is  called  sexual  reproduction.  The  two  uniting  proto- 
plasts are  called  gametes.  If  the  gametes  come  from  dif- 
erent  plants,  they  are  said  to  be  cross-fertilized.  If  both 
pollen  and  ovule  are  borne  in  the  same  flower,  it  is  self- 
fertilized. 

Many  plants  reproduce  from  stems,  roots  or  leaves. 
Such  reproduction  is  without  sex,  or  is  asexual.  Potatoes 
are  reproduced  by  the  tubers.  Quack  grass  and  Johnson 
grass  reproduce  by  root-stocks,  or  underground  stems. 
Sweet  potatoes  reproduce  by  roots;  willows  grow  from 
cuttings;  white  clover  stems  take  root;  wheat,  oats,  and 
barley  form  large  clumps  by  stooling.  Most  of  the  farm 
plants  that  reproduce  asexually  also  form  seeds. 

The  first  experimental  proof  of  sexuality  in  plants  was 
made  in   1691,   but   httle   apphcation   of  this   knowledge 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HEREDITY  13 

was    made    in    the    improvement   of  plants  until    within 
the  last  fifty  years. 

16.  Artificial  Crossing.  It  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  cross 
plants.    The  essential  steps  are: 

(1)  Prevent  undesired  pollen  from  reaching  the  stigma. 

(2)  Apply  the  desired  pollen  when  the  stigma  is  ready 
to  receive  it. 

Suppose  it  is  desired  to  cross  a  Ben  Davis  and  a  Winesap 
apple.  Shortly  before  the  blossoms  open,  remove  the 
stamens  from  several  blossoms  on  one  tree,  say  the  Ben 
Davis,  and  cover  with  paper  bags.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  injure  the  pistil.  The  petals  may  be  removed  if 
they  are  in  the  way.  (Fig.  6  shows  a  pea  blossom  with 
petals  and  stamens  removed.)  When  the  blossoms  on 
the  tree  are  in  full  bloom,  it  is  ready  for  the  application 
of  pollen.  Jar  a  number  of  blossoms  on  the  Winesap  tree 
over  a  small  dish,  so  as  to  get  pollen  from  them.  This 
may  be  appUed  to  the  stigmas  of  the  blossoms  on  the  Ben 
Davis  tree  with  a  camel's-hair  brush  or  with  the  finger. 
Cover  with  the  paper  bags  to  prevent  other  pollen  entering. 
Remove  the  bags  after  the  fruit  is  set.  In  the  case  of  corn, 
the  ears  are  covered  with  bags  when  the  silks  appear, 
and,   later,   pollen  is  appUed  from  the  desired  tassel. 

When  two  varieties  or  breeds  of  plants  or  animals 
are  crossed,  the  new  individual  is  called  a  hybrid.^ 

SOME    PRINCIPLES   OF   HEREDITY^ 

17.  Problems  of  Heredity.  If  a  pollen  grain  from  a  red- 
flowered  pea  fertilizes  an  ovule  from  a  white  pea,  some 

^The  word  hybrid  was  formerly  restricted  to  crosses  between  different 
species,  but  it  is  now  commonly  used  to  designate  any  cross. 

2It  may  be  desirable  to  omit  paragraphs  17  to  19  unless  the  students 
are  well  advanced. 


14  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

plants  in  succeeding  generations  will  bear  red  blossoms  and 
some  white  blossoms.  In  this,  as  in  all  inheritance,  two 
problems  are  involved: 

(1)  How  the  parent  plant  can  impress  its  character 
on  the  gametes. 

(2)  How  the  uniting  gametes  impress  their  characters 
on  the  new  individual. 

How  can  the  minute  pollen  grain  of  the  pea  carry  the 
white  color,  the  size  of  the  vine,  the  shape  of  the  pea, 
the  earliness  of  the  variety,  and  the  innumerable  other 
characters  of  the  parent  plant?  How  does  this  parent 
plant  impress  these  characters  on  the  pollen  grain?  These 
are  questions  about  which  there  are  many  theories,  but 
no  one  knows  the  answer. 

When  two  gametes  unite  to  form  a  new  individual, 
how  do  the  characters  represented  by  each  of  them  unite? 
If  one  represents  a  red  and  one  a  white  blossom,  the  new 
plant  cannot  be  both  red  and  white, — what  color  will 
it  be?   To  these  questions  we  now  have  partial  answers. 

18.  MendePs  Law.^  Mendel  crossed  a  number  of  plants 
and  studied  the  inheritance  of  contrasting  characters  in 
the  hybrids.  Only  two  of  his  experiments  with  peas  are 
here  mentioned.    Two  of  the  several  characteristics  which 

iGregor  Johann  Mendel  was  an  Austrian  monk,  Abbot  of  Brunn.  He 
was  born  in  1822,  and  died  in  1884.  In  the  garden  of  his  cloister  he  con- 
ducted many  experiments,  particulariy  with  peas.  He  published  a  few  papers 
from  1853  to  1865,  but  they  attracted  little  attention  and  were  soon  for- 
gotten. But  in  1900  they  were  discovered.  Since  then  his  work  has  been 
the  most  compelling  force  in  plant  and  animal  improvement.  Nearly  every 
experiment  station  has  gone  to  work  to  improve  plants,  and  to  study  the 
principles  on  which  this  improvement  depends. 

His  work  differed  from  that  of  most  students,  in  that  he  used  large 
numbers,  and  so  secured  averages.  When  the  laws  of  chance  apply,  no  con- 
clusions are  of  any  value  unless  large  numbers  are  used.  One  might  draw 
five  yellow  kernels  of  corn  in  succession  from  a  dish  containing  half 
white.  His  conclusions  would  be  entirely  wrong.  Only  when  he  draws  a 
large  number  of  times,  will  he  be  sure  to  have  approximately  equal  numbers 
of  each. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HEREDITY  15 

he  studied  were  color  of  flower  and  shape  of  seed.  He 
crossed  red-flowered  ones  with  those  having  white  flowers, 
and  crossed  those  having  wrinkled  or  angular  seed  with 
those  having  round  peas. 

Sixty  blossoms  were  fertilized  so  that  either  the  pollen 
or  the  pistil  came  from  a  pea  that  had  the  round  seed, 
while  the  other  gamete  came  from  a  plant  that  bore 
wrinkled  seeds.  When  these  hybrid  seeds  grew,  they  all 
produced  round  seeds.  These  round  peas  were  planted,  and 
in  the  next  generation  there  were  7,324  seeds,  of  which 
5,474  were  round  and  1,850  were  angular,  or  a  ratio  of 
2.96  to  1.  When  the  angular  peas  were  planted,  they  pro- 
duced only  angular  seeds,  and  continued  so  to  do  indefi- 
nitely. One-third  of  the  round  ones  produced  only  round, 
and  continued  all  round  in  later  generations.  The  other 
two-thirds  of  the  round  ones,  or  approximately  half  of 
the  whole  number,  produced  both  round  and  angular  peas 
in  the  proportion  of  3  to  1.  Of  these,  the  angular  ones 
remained  angular  when  planted,  and  one-third  of  the 
round  ones  remained  round,  while  two-thirds  again  broke 
up  into  round  and  angular. 

Likewise  he  crossed  peas  with  red  flowers  and  white 
flowers.  When  the  seeds  were  planted,  all  the  plants  bore 
red  flowers.  But  in  the  next  generation,  of  929  plants 
705  were  red  and  224  were  white,  a  ratio  of  3.15  to  1. 
The  white  ones  produced  only  white  in  the  future.  One- 
third  of  the  red  ones  produced  only  red,  and  two-thirds 
produced  both  red  and  white  in  the  proportion  of  3  to  1. 

From  these  and  other  experiments  he  drew  the  follow- 
ing conclusions: 

(1)  It   made  no   difference   which   way  the   cross   was 


16  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

made.  When  pollen  from  a  red  flower  was  applied  to  the 
stigma  of  a  white  flower,  the  succeeding  generations  were 
just  the  same  as  when  pollen  came  from  a  white  flower 
to  the  stigma  of  the  red. 

(2)  In  the  first  generation  the  characters  did  not  blend. 
He  did  not  get  a  half-wrinkled  pea.  All  were  round  and, 
similarly,  all  had  red  blossoms.  The  character  that  thus 
appears  in  the  hybrid  is  called  dominant,  and  the  character 
that  is  not  apparent  is  called  recessive. 

(3)  The  gametes  carried  only  one  of  two  contrasting 
characters;  otherwise  it  would  not  be  possible  to  get  a 
pure  red  and  a  pure  white  from  hybrids.  This  is  sometimes 
called  the  law  of  gametic  purity. 

If  we  represent  the  red  color  by  R  and  the  white  by  W, 
a  hybrid  will  be  represented  by  RW.  This  is  what  he  got 
in  the  first  generation,  but  these  all  appeared  red,  this 
color  being  dominant.  When  seed  from  these  was  planted, 
the  next  generation  gave  three-fourths  red  and  one-fourth 
white.  But,  since  two-thirds  of  the  red  ones  produced 
both  red  and  white  in  succeeding  generations,  it  is  evident 
that  they  were  hybrids.  The  proportions  may,  therefore, 
be  expressed  as  follows: 

1  R  —  2  RW  —  1  W 

One  pure  red,  two  hybrids  also  red,  one  pure  white.  The 
first  three  all  appear  ahke;  the  only  way  to  tell  their  dif- 
ference being  by  their  action  in  succeeding  generations. 
A  pollen  grain  of  a  hybrid  is  equally  likely  to  carry  the 
red  or  the  white  color.  On  the  average,  half  of  them  will 
carry  the  red  and  half  the  white.  Similarly,  the  ovules 
of  a  hybrid  carry  each  color.    When  they  unite,  we  may 


PRINCIPLES   OF  HEREDITY 


17 


have^:     (1)  Red    uniting    with   red;    (2)  red    with  white; 
(3)  white  with  red;  (4)  white  with  white,  or: 

1  RR  —  1  RW  —  1  WR  —  1  WW 

Since  RW  and  WR  are  aUke, 

1  RR  —  2  RW  —  1  WW 

If  we  suppose  that  each  plant  produces  only  four  seeds, 
and  that  it  follows  the  average,  we  should  get  the  following 
results,  starting  with  one  hybrid: 

First  Generation  Second  Generation  Third  Generation 

{Pure  White 
Pure  White 
Pure  White 
Pure  White 

{Pure  White 
ged  Hybrid 
Red  Hybrid 
Pure  Red 

rPure  White 

I^ed  Hybrid \lta^^ 

I  Pure  Red 


Red  Hybrid. 


Pure  Red 


IRW 


IRR  — 2RW  — IW 


rPure  Red 
I  Pure  Red 
I  Pure  Red 
[Pure  Red 


6RR  — 4RW  — 6WW 


An  interesting  example  of  dominant  and  recessive 
characters  is  in  eye  color  in  man.  Dark  color  is  dominant 
over  blue  or  light  color.  If  a  person  has  light-colored 
eyes,  it  is  evident  that  the  dark  color  is  not  present,  else 
it  would  show.   Those  who  have  dark  eyes  may  or  may  not 


'The  pea  is  a  self-fertilized  plant, 
mathematics  is  more  complex. 

B 


With  cross-fertilized  plants,   the 


18  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

have  the  light  color  recessive.  All  children  whose  parents 
have  light-colored  eyes  also  have  light  eyes;  but,  if  one  or 
both  parents  have  dark  eyes,  the  children  may  have  either 
color,  depending  on  whether  the  dark-eyed  parent  has  the 
light  color  recessive. 

The  law  of  chance,  on  which  all  these  results  depend, 
may  be  illustrated  as  follows: 

Put  equal  numbers  of  white  and  yellow  kernels  of  corn 
in  a  dish.  Mix  them  up,  then  let  two  students  each  draw 
without  looking.  Mark  down  the  result  of  each  pair  drawn. 
If  a  large  enough  number  is  used,  the  result  will  probably 
have  a  ratio  very  close  to: 

1  YY  :  1  YW  :  1  WY:  1  WW 
or,  YY  :  2  YW  :  WW 

When  more  than  two  characters  are  considered,  Mendel 
found  that  each  set  of  characters  may  be  inherited  inde- 
pendently of  the  others. 

If  a  tall,  red-blossomed,  round  pea  is  crossed  with  a 
short,  white-blossomed,  angular  one,  we  shall  get  the 
following  forms,  besides  hybrids,  in  each  character: 

Tall,  white,  round.  Short,  white,  round. 

Tall,  red,  round.  Short,  red,  round. 

Tall,  white,  angular.  Short,  white,  angular. 

Tall,  red,  angular.  Short,  red,  angular. 

But  to  get  any  one  of  these  kinds  with  each  of  the 
characters  pure  would  be  a  task  for  a  professional 
breeder.  When  we  consider  that  each  plant  has  very 
many  characters,  we  see  what  a  complicated  matter  it 
becomes.  The  great  majority  of  the  new  forms  will  be 
undesirable,  but  occasionally  one  may  be  good.     We  must 


PRINCIPLES   OF  HEREDITY  19 

remember  that  our  new  kinds  need  to  be  better  than  what 
we  now  have.    It  is  not  enough  that  they  be  different. 

There  are  cases  in  which  Mendel's  law  does  not  seem 
to  apply.  Sometimes  crosses  do  give  blends,  or  inter- 
mediates. Perhaps  this  is  because  we  do  not  know  what 
unit   characters   are. 

19.  Application  of  Menders  Law.  Since  the  results  of 
crossing  give  rise  to  such  a  miscellaneous  array  of  forms, 
only  a  very  few  of  which  are  desirable,  it  is  evidently  not 
a  good  practice  for  farmers  to  cross  plants  or  animals 
of  different  breeds.  This  is  a  very  common  practice  of 
American  farmers,  but  certainly  does  not  seem  to  be  a 
wise  one.  A  man  will  get  his  herd  of  cattle  graded  up  to 
Shorthorn,  then  for  some  reason  he  changes  to  Hereford, 
then  to  Angus,  then  perhaps  back  to  Hereford.  The  re- 
sult is  a  mongrel  herd.  It  is  much  better  to  decide  on  a 
breed  and  then  keep  breeding  to  pure-bred  sires  of  that 
breed.    One  will  soon  have  a  herd  that  is  nearly  pure-bred. 

Since  we  expect,  not  blends,  but  a  recombination  of  char- 
acters, we  shall  not  expect  to  get  a  plant  of  intermediate 
size  by  crossing  a  large  one  with  a  small  one.  Nor  shall 
we  expect  moderate-sized  horses  because  one  parent  is 
large  and  one  small.  We  are  much  more  likely  to  get 
an  animal  with  bad  proportions.  We  often  see  horses 
with  the  body  of  a  trotter  carrying  the  feet  of  a  draft- 
horse  and  sometimes  the  head  of  a  draft-horse.  Many  of 
the  ungainly  horses  that  are  seen  everywhere  are  the 
failures  in  attempts  to  get  intermediates  between  distinct 
types.    (See  Fig.  2.) 

If  one  wishes  to  produce  an  entirely  new  type  or  breed, 
it  is  often  desirable  to  cross  unlike  forms,  in  the  hope  of 


20 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


getting  desirable  blends  or  new  combinations  of  charac- 
ters. But  this  is  done  with  the  knowledge  that  the  great 
majority  will  have  to  be  discarded.  The  large  number  of 
poor  ones  is  the  price  paid  for  a  possible  one  or  two  su- 
perior ones.  The  farmer  who  is  not  a  breeder  does  well  to 
decide  on  what  breed  he  wants,  and  then  stick  to  it. 

Half-breeds  are  often  good  in  the  first  generation;  but 
this  is  what  we  should  expect,  because  only  the  dominant 
■characters  are  apparent.  Mendel  found  that  by  crossing 
peas  with  stems  one  foot  in  length  with  those  six  feet  in 
length  he  got  hybrids  six  to  seven  and  one-half  feet  in 
length — larger  than  either  parent;  but,  in  the  next  gen- 
eration, short  forms  reappeared.    The  succeeding  genera- 


6 

1 

y" 

*f 

/ 

o/  y« 

4 

^-=^-=' 

^.^_,^. 

^^:=^^ 

u^.. 

^ 

r^ 

_^-*= 



2 

/  */*■ 

/ 

-| 

f 

0 

t 

>            20            30           ^            50             60            70             80             90          lOOi 

Fig.  8.     Yield  in  grams  of  100  plants  of  Fife  and  Blue-stem  wheat  and  of  a 

hybrid  between  the  two.    (Adapted  from  Hays.) 

Yield  of  Blue-stem.  Yield  of  Fife,   x-x-x  Yield  of  hybrid. 

tions  are  the  ones  that  are  likely  to  bring  disappointment. 
If  the  half-breeds  are  to  be  sold  to  the  butcher,  crossing 
may  be  desirable.  This  agrees  with  common  experience, 
that  it  is  not  wise  to  use  half-breed  animals  as  sires  even  if 
they  do  appear  to  be  good. 

Fig.  8  shows  the  yield  of  one  hundred  plants  of  fife  and 
blue-stem  wheat  and  of  a  hybrid  between  the  two.    The 


STEPS   IN   BREEDING  21. 

hybrids  do  not  average  so  good  as  the  fife.  Many  of  them 
are  worse  than  either  parent.  The  few  good  ones  between 
o — o  are  of  interest  to  a  professional  breeder;  but  the  dis- 
cordant array  is  a  strong  argument  against  crossing  as- 
a  general  farm  practice. 

STEPS  IN  BREEDING 

There  are  three  steps  in  improving  plants  or  animals: 

(1)  Increasing  variation. 

(2)  Selection  of  desirable  forms. 

(3)  Testing  the  power  of  the  selected  individuals  ta 
reproduce  their  desirable  characters. 

20.  Variation  may  be  increased  by  any  change  in  envi- 
ronment, as  a  change  in  food  supply  or  climate.  It  is  greatly 
increased  by  crossing.  Only  those  who  make  a  business- 
of  producing  new  forms  are  likely  to  want  to  try  to  in- 
crease variation.  For  ordinary  farm  purposes,  it  is  usually 
better  to  make  selections  from  the  innumerable  varia- 
tions that  already  exist. 

21.  Selection  is  the  most  important  step  in  all  im- 
provement. In  making  selections,  the  primary  use  should 
always  be  of  first  consideration.  It  is  the  number  of  eggs 
produced,  and  not  the  feathers,  that  determines  the  real 
worth  of  a  hen.  Unfortunately,  the  prizes  are  usually 
awarded  on  the  feathers.  The  amount  of  butter  that  a 
cow  produces,  and  not  the  switch  of  the  tail,  is  the  pri- 
mary point  in  selecting  a  cow.  The  yield  of  corn,  and  not 
the  peculiarities  of  the  kernels,  is  the  essential  point.  It 
is  also  necessary  to  remember  that  the  individual  is  the 
unit  to  be  considered.    The  hill  of  potatoes,  and  not  the 


22  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

single  tuber,  is  the  unit.  The  melon  vine,  and  not  the 
single  melon,  should  be  chosen.  The  good  melon  may 
have  been  the  only  one  that  the  plant  produced. 

Constant  selection  is  necessary  in  order  to  keep  any 
of  our  farm  crops  or  animals  up  to  their  present  standard. 
The  breeder  of  pure-blood  cattle  who  does  not  cull  out 
many  individuals  is  certain  to  run  the  average  down. 
Our  standard  is  the  upper  part  of  the  curve  of  variation.  If 
careful  selection  is  not  made,  we  will  tend  to  get  back  to 
the  average. 

Most  of  our  plants  and  animals  already  exhibit  more 
variation  than  we  desire.  Uniformity  is  often  as  important 
as  an  increase  in  the  yield.  A  uniform  herd  of  cattle  is  a 
better  indication  of  good  breeding  than  is  a  variable  herd 
that  may  have  some  better  individuals.  Uniformity  in 
size,  color,  and  general  appearance  is  of  more  importance 
in  selling  vegetables  and  fruit  than  is  mere  size  or  flavor. 

22.  Testing  Hereditary  Power.  Testing  the  power  to 
transmit  the  good  qualities  to  the  next  generation  is  really 
further  selection.  Good  individuals  often  fail  to  produce 
good  ones.  The  best  ears  of  corn  have  been  selected  for 
many  years,  and  great  improvement  has  been  made. 
Much  greater  improvement  would  doubtless  have  resulted 
if  the  hereditary  power  had  been  tested,  as  explained 
in  the  ear-row  test  (Fig.  12). 

Dairy  herds  that  have  been  carefully  selected  often 
come  to  be  made  up  of  the  descendants  of  one  cow;  usually 
from  a  good  cow,  but  not  always  from  the  best  cow.  It 
is  not  enough  that  a  cow  be  a  good  one;  she  should  be  the 
mother  of  good  cows.  Fig.  9  shows  a  good  example  of 
such  a  cow.    On  the  left  is  Prilly  No.  40082  who  produced 


\'-.  '•■ 


9       »     m 
•  •        •• 


»4. 


IMPROVING   FARM   CROPS  23 

25.20  pounds  of  butter  in  seven  days.  In  the  center  is  her 
daughter  who  produced  26.90  pounds  in  seven  days.  On 
the  right  her  granddaughter  who  produced  30.03  pounds. 

The  trotting  horse  called  Messenger  was  not  famous 
for  his  speed,  but  nearly  every  one  of  the  best  trotting 
horses  of  today  has  some  of  his  blood. 

Not  every  attractive  plant  or  animal  is  desirable. 
Much  too  often  an  attractive  young  male  is  placed  at 
the  head  of  a  herd,  only  to  find  that  a  mistake  has  been 
made.  Whenever  possible,  it  is  desirable  that  individu- 
als be  selected  because  they  have  good  offspring. 

IMPROVING  SOME   FARM  CROPS 

23.  Plant-Breeding  vs.  Animal-Breeding.  The  plant- 
breeder  has  several  advantages  over  the  animal-breeder: 

(1)  He  can  grow  large  numbers  at  small  cost,  and  so 
have  greater  numbers  to  select  from.  He  need  save  only 
one  in  thousands.  The  animal-breeder  must  work  with 
fewer  numbers,  and  save  a  larger  proportion. 

(2)  When  superior  plants  are  obtained,  they  can  be 
rapidly   multiplied. 

(3)  Many  plants  can  be  propagated  by  asexual  means, 
hence  avoiding  the  reversion  that  comes  from  seeds.  If 
a  desirable  hybrid  is  found,  it  is  not  given  a  chance  to 
revert,  but  is  propagated  by  buds,  roots,  or  cuttings. 
Our  varieties  of  apples,  strawberries,  and  most  other  fruits, 
potatoes,  and  many  flowers,  would  be  lost  if  they  had  to 
be  propagated  by  seeds. 

24.  Comparative  Improvement  of  Different  Crops.  Those 
crops  in  which  the  individual  has  been  handled  by  the 


24 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  10.     Twenty  thousand  timothy  plants. 
Each  grown  from  a  single  seed 


farmer  have  been  most  rapidly  improved.    Each  ear  ol 
corn  is  seen  when  husking,  the  differences  have  attracted 

attention.  The  result- 
ing selection  has  given 
the  most  striking  ex- 
ample of  improvement 
on  a  large  scale.  Pota- 
toes have  been  more 
rapidly  improved  than 
wheat.  There  are  hun- 
dreds of  named  varie- 
ties of  apples,  but  no 
varieties  of  timothy. 
Yet  the  differences  between  timothy  plants  are  probably  as 
great  as  the  differences  between  varieties  of  apples.  At 
Cornell  University,  there  are  about  twenty  thousand  indi- 
vidual timothy  plants  growing  in  rows.  There  are  many 
distinct  types  that  will  make  very  desirable  varieties 
(Fig.  10). 

25.  Sugar-beet.  The 
most  striking  example  of 
rapid  improvement  due  to 
the  application  of  scien- 
tific principles  is  the  sugar- 
beet. 

In  a  hundred  years,  the 
percentage  of  sugar  has 
been  increased  from  about 
8  per  cent  to  an  average  of 

14      to     18     per     cent.       The  Fig.  ll.     Two  timothy  plants  growing 

,  TT    •      J       ^^^^  ^y  side,  showing  difference  in  yield, 

average      m       the        Umted       Each  one  grew  from  a  single  seed. 


IMPROVING  FARM   CROPS  25 

States  was  14.9  per  cent  in  1907,  and  one  field  of 
twenty  acres  in  Washington  averaged  22  per  cent 
sugar^.  Less  than  a  hundred  years  ago  (1812),  the 
first  beet-sugar  was  manufactured  for  sale;  now  over 
half  the  sugar  supply  of  the  world  comes  from  beets. 

Large  firms  have  made  a  business  of  breeding  beets. 
The  method  of  improvement  has  been  about  as  follows: 
When  digging  the  beets,  the  workmen  select  the  best- 
looking  ones  of  medium  size  (one  and  one-half  to  two 
pounds),  smooth  and  uniform,  and  that  grow  below  the 
ground.  These  are  stored  for  winter  testing.  In  the  winter 
they  are  tested  for  sugar  and  per  cent  of  solids  not  sugar. 
A  small  core  is  bored  out  for  the  sugar  test.  This  does  not 
injure  the  beet  for  planting.  The  solid  matter  other  than 
sugar  makes  the  extraction  of  sugar  more  difficult.  Those 
with  a  high  percentage  of  sugar  and  low  percentage  of 
other  solids  are  best.  The  beets  are  graded  into  different 
classes,  based  on  the  percentage  of  sugar,  and  are  planted 
to  raise  seed. 

The  seed  produced  by  each  of  these  beets  is  sown  in 
separate  rows,  to  test  the  reproductive  power.  New  selec- 
tions for  continuing  the  improvement  are  made  from  the 
best  beets  of  the  best  rows.  The  remaining  ones  are  used 
for  growing  commercial  seed.  The  seed  grown  from  beets 
with  a  high  sugar  content  sells  higher  than  that  grown 
from  the  poorer  classes. 

26.  Corn  Improvement.  The  best  ears  may  be  selected 
from  a  crib,  or  from  the  field  at  husking  time,  or  one  may 
go  into  the  field  before  husking  and  select  good  ears  on 
good  stalks  that  grew  under  normal  conditions.    A  good 

lExperiment  Station  Record,  Vol.  XIX,  p.  32. 


«Kr  DrcMBi  «  crib  naMQr  1mit»  Iima  good  bM4iusi»  tiA  slidQ: 
ip«w  ttttdvr  «iWftidHy  f^votftbl^t  tOftdiHoas.  1%  m^r  iMive 
lErown  ftlMi%  wbMi  no^  of  U»  planls  |^w  in  ldUs»  or  it 
m^-  haY«  gioim  Oft  rielmr  soU. 

IKlth  aa(^  of  UMSft  BBiHltf^  of  sfttodmi^  im  know  on^ 
h:iUf  tb^  pMOftt«iS!^  Tbo  pottw  to  IftliKie  iKe  9>ood  ear 
m;!^*  ha\«  eonft  Bknbii  sl«lks  ^Ih  very  poor  e<9ur^  It  i$ 
BOCi<QaMty»  ^M^we^  to  t<6l  Ibo  yMl#^^  poirar. 

Tb(»  soloHod  oatis  sbooMi  bo  lo^  ia  %  dix»  nodonktetf 
witftt  |iImo  dorittit  tbo  wifttor,  afi  finomg  butts  ttft  onl^^ 
^rtiMi  Iber  ;Mn»  mobt  (ps^  M).  la  tbo  ^prin;*  ^  8wwiin»- 
^oft  t06%  is  VMd%  «s  a  liurlbw  soIwImmii  (|Mi9^  ^).  Diacwd 
ail  ears  tbat  do  nc^  ^semraMlo  all  of  tbo  six  konMfe  l«^od; 
abo  dbearvi  tboc^  th;!it  pioduco  ^wook  spioal& 

$uppo(««  that  t^ireiuy-fiTO  ol  U*  bosi  outs,  aU  oC  p«N 
loH  l^wniMti^ott^  MO  now  tnkon  kr  m  okmow  t«9^  tbo 
looMining  80td  bong  usod  for  ios^il«r  Md  phartingx 
SMI  OMb  of  ibo  twonty-fiTo  ows  into  n  popw  bog  booi^ 
in§  tbo  nambor  ol  ^lo  oor.  Sriei-'t  a  pkico  in  tbo  log^iAor 
ootnMd  kif»  ononi^  fur  tl^  bUb  aqiudrow  Tbo  soU 
i^bo«M  bo  unilonn  ond  of  nTomi^  loi^^.  HiAt  lows 
1  nnd  :^  &o«i  onr  1;  voit^  2  and  27  fiom  oor  2;  lows  3 
nnd  as  £rom  onr  3^  ole.  Tbb  fltos^  %iro  trink  ot  oneb 
onr^  $o  tbol  sott  dOiiHOMOG  wiH  bo  aHomd  fur.  Hnll  of 
Uio  sood  of  ooieb  onr  is  snxod  lor  noad  jom^  pinnling. 

Afl«r  tbo  torn  b  up.  it  i$  a  $ood  pmtlieo  to  tbin  it  to  n 
nniiona  winibor  of  sinlks  pw  row.  Tbo  com  is  ^il^imted 
tbo  aona  «s  tbo  i^^or  Md.  In  tbo  lott,  biK^  oncb  row 
s^pnmto^'  and  monsuio  tbo  vi^. 

S^^  n  tosl>  condnctod  in  m7  by  Yolo  DoimI,  n  fatom^ 
l¥insa^CbMiiobiil»RY..«nx%tboiaiowintptMs:  (Tbo 


IMPROVINO  FARM  CROPS 


27 


yields  given  are  the  averages  of  the  two  rows  planted 
from  eaoh  ear.) 


Knr 
No. 

1.. 
2.. 
3.. 

4.. 
5.. 

(I.. 
7.. 
H.. 
!).. 
10.. 

u.. 

12.. 

la.. 


DuhUaU 
per  ttoro 

.  60 

.  40 

.  42 

.  20 

.  70 

.  If) 

.  liCi 

.  M 

.  46 

.  45 

.  45 

.  48 

,  :jo 


Ear 

No. 
14., 
15. 
16. 

17. 

IH., 

h)., 

20., 
21.. 
22.. 
23.. 
24.. 
25.. 


nuNheU 

pwr  unra 

.  42 

,  .  35 

,  .  04 

.  01 

.  00 

.  28 

.  74 

.  20 

.  40 

.  43 

.  50 

.  32 


TIiIm  tiiMo  hIiowh  tlio  oxtroinely  variable  yielding  ability 
of  ours  that  iiro  ai)i)anMitly  all  ^ood.  No  one  would  imagine 
that  thoro  would  ho  hucIi  a  diiTeronco.  Tho  best  four  ears 
wore  5,  10,  17,  and  20. 
But  thoHO  woro  all  ^rowu 
adja,c(Mit  to  poor  rows. 
It  would  not  do  to  aavo 
seed  from  these  good 
rows,  because  they  will 
be  Grossed  with  the  ad- 
jacent poor  rows.  Seed 
Iroin  them  might,  how- 

CVJM",  !>('  used  ill   llic  field 

planting.    \\v.  ;  till   li.iv(; 

parts  of  eaoh  < mi     ixcd  from   the  spring  planting.  The 

following    year,    tho    remnants  of    these    four    ears  are 

planted  in   an   isolated    place,   where  they  will   not  mix 


I.H   of   lldjliriMll     n.\v       ni    :ni   OftF- 

i^r  llio  (lilTor«tu'«<  ill   yiohilng 
IH  thai  lookt^tl  tHiually  auod. 


28  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

with  other  corn.  This  patch  will  furnish  seed  for  a  small 
field  the  following  year,  and  the  third  year  there  will  be 
enough  seed  for  a  large  area. 

Each  year,  particularly  good  ears  may  be  selected 
from  the  best  rows  or  from  the  main  field,  and  the  process 
continued.  When  one  carries  this  process  out  carefully, 
his  neighbors  will  likely  desire  the  extra  corn  for  seed. 

A  trial  conducted  by  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station^ 
shows  that  variations  in  all  characters  occur.  In  1905, 
seed  from  102  of  the  best  ears  of  corn  was  planted  in  an 
ear-row  test.  Records  of  yields,  barren  stalks,  broken 
stalks,  suckers,  etc.,  were  made  for  each  row,  showing 
the  variations  in  the  102  ears,  all  of  which  appeared  to 
be  good. 

Variation  in  yield: 

Ear  No.  75  yielded  91  bushels  per  acre. 
Ear  No.  93  yielded  36  bushels  per  acre. 

Variation  in  number  of  broken  stalks: 

Ear  54  had  64  per  cent  of  the  stalks  broken  and  yielded  68 

bushels  per  acre. 
Ear  85  had   8  per  cent  of  the  stalks  broken  and  yielded   77 

bushels  per  acre. 

Variation  in  number  of  barren  stalks: 

Ear    19    produced   22  per  cent   barren  stalks  and   yielded   51 

bushels  per  acre. 
Ear   83    produced    1.5  per  cent   barren  stalks  and  yielded  76 

bushels  per  acre. 

Variation  in  number  of  suckers: 

Ear    106  produced  21   per   cent   of  suckers,    and  yielded   78 

bushels  per  acre. 
Ear  75  produced  no  suckers,  and  yielded  91  bushels  per  acr«, 

ilowa  Bulletm  No.  77. 


IMPROVING   FARM   CROPS  29 

If  one  does  not  care  to  select  corn  so  carefully,  he 
may  at  least  select  the  best  ears  and  make  a  germination 
test.  If  corn  is  husked  from  the  field,  a  box  may  be  tied 
on  the  wagon  into  which  the  best  ears  are  put. 

27.  Cotton  may  be  improved  in  the  same  manner. 
Seed  is  saved  from  the  best  plants  in  the  field.  Rows 
are  planted  from  each  plant,  and  in  each  case  half  of  the 
seed  is  saved.  The  yield  from  the  different  rows  deter- 
mines which  of  the  original  plants  were  best  able  to  trans- 
mit their  good  qualities.  The  remaining  seed  from  the 
best  original  plants  is  then  planted  together,  to  grow 
seed  for  field  use. 

28.  Other  Cross-fertilized  Plants  may  be  improved  in 
the  same  way: 

(1)  Select  the  best. 

(2)  Test  the  yielding  power,  saving  a  part  of  the  seed 
from  each  plant. 

(3)  Plant  the  remnants  of  seed  from  the  best  plants. 
Tobacco,  rye  and  timothy  are  cross-fertilized  plants. 

29.  Oats.  Oats  are  commonly  self-fertiUzed,  so  that  a 
poor  row  beside  a  good  one  will  not  harm  it.  The  third 
step  can,  therefore,  be  omitted. 

Save  seed  from  the  best  plants  from  a  field  of  oats, 
or,  if  the  individual  plants  cannot  be  distinguished,  save 
the  best  heads.  The  seed  from  each  plant  will  need  to 
be  tested,  to  see  whether  it  produces  well.  The  plant  may 
have  been  good  because  the  soil  where  it  grew  was  good. 

The  seed  may  be  planted  in  rows  six  to  ten  inches 
apart,  and  a  rod  or  more  long.  If  twenty-five  heads  were 
saved,  rows  1  and  26  may  be  planted  from  head  1 ;  rows 
2  and  27  from  head  2,  etc.    The  best-yielding  rows  are 


30  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

saved  for  seed.  These  will  have  to  be  raised  another 
year  before  there  will  be  enough  for  a  field.  The  process 
may  be  repeated  for  further  improvement. 

30.  Other  Self-fertilized  Plants  may  be  improved  in 
the  same  manner: 

(1)  Select  the  best. 

(2)  Test  the  yielding  power.  The  seed  from  those 
that  yield  most  is  saved  for  field  planting. 

Wheat,  rice,  peas,  beans,  are  commonly  self-fertilizing. 

31.  Potatoes  are  propagated  by  cuttings.  The  potato 
tuber  is  a  much-enlarged  underground  stem.  The  eyes 
are  really  buds.  Propagation  in  this  way  is  asexual.  When 
a  good  potato  is  secured,  it  is  multiplied  from  cuttings. 

The  only  satisfactory  way  to  improve  potatoes  by  selec- 
tion is  by  hill  selection.  What  is  necessary  for  a  good  yield 
is  good  hills.  If  a  large  potato  is  selected  from  a  bin  of 
potatoes,  it  may  have  been  the  only  good  potato  in  the 
hill.  If  potatoes  are  dug  by  hand,  the  best  hills  may  be 
saved  while  digging.  If  they  are  dug  with  a  machine, 
the  most  promising  hills  may  be  dug  by  hand  before  dig- 
ging the  field.  The  ones  that  produce  the  largest  yield 
of  desirable  potatoes  are  saved  for  seed.  Enough  may  be 
saved  in  this  way  so  that  they  will  produce  seed  for  the 
entire  field  the  second  year  following.  It  is  also  desirable 
to  keep  each  hill  separate  and  to  plant  separately.  In  this 
case,  the  ones  that  yield  most  are  kept  for  the  breeding 
plot. 

32.  How  Often  Do  Potatoes  Need  to  Be  Grown  from  the 
Seed-ball?  Potatoes  also  reproduce  by  seeds  from  the 
seed-balls.  But  the  number  of  these  seeds  is  now  small. 
Probably,  the  potato  that  produced  fewest  seeds  has  been 


QUESTIONS  31 

able  to  grow  the  best  tubers.  The  statement  is  often  made 
that  potatoes  must  be  renewed  from  the  seed-ball  fre- 
quently, in  order  to  keep  up  their  yield.  If  carefully 
selected  and  well  grown,  the  present  varieties  would  doubt- 
less maintain  their  yield  indefinitely.  When  poor  potatoes 
are  planted  and  poorly  cared  for,  they  will  surely  deteri- 
orate. It  is  probable  that  new  varieties  will  continue  to 
be  formed  from  the  seed  that  are  better  than  any  of  the 
present  varieties,  so  that  even  if  present  varieties  are  im- 
proved they  are  certain  to  be  displaced  eventually.  Old 
varieties  cannot  be  renewed  from  the  seed  because  pota- 
toes do  not  come  true  from  seed. 

33.  Plant-breeding  Farms.  Farms  whose  business  is 
the  production  of  improved  varieties  of  plants  are  now 
beginning  to  develop  in  different  parts  of  this  country. 
Several  such  establishments  have  been  in  operation  for 
a  number  of  years  in  Europe.  In  time,  farmers  will  likely 
come  to  look  to  these  farms  for  seed,  as  they  now  go  to 
stock-farms  for  pure-bred  stock.  If  improved  seeds  are 
really  produced,  they  must  be  sold  for  an  increased  price. 
Improvement,  such  as  can  be  practiced  on  any  farm, 
as  described  in  the  preceding  paragraphs,  is  not  very  ex- 
pensive. But  to  produce  new  types  of  plants  that  are 
better  than  anything  else  that  now  exists  is  expensive. 
When  once  produced,  they  are  too  valuable  to  be  grown 
by  one  man  only. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  protoplasm? 

2.  What  are  the  worst  ten  weeds  of  the  neighborhood?  Look  them 
up  in  the  botany  manual  and  see  which  were  introduced  from  Europe. 
What  are  the  characters  of  each  that  make  it  able  to  persist? 


32  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

3.  There  are  about  225,000  alfalfa  seeds  in  a  pound.  About  fifteen 
to  thirty  pounds  is  sown  per  acre.  If  twenty  pounds  is  sown,  how  many 
seeds  would  there  be  on  a  square  foot?  Some  good  old  fields  do  not 
have  over  five  plants  per  square  foot.  Why  is  so  much  seed  sown?  If 
fields  are  available,  count  the  number  of  plants  on  old  and  new  seed- 
ings.  Do  the  same  principles  apply  in  planting  corn?  To  what  other 
plants  do  they  apply? 

4.  Why  are  the  ears  on  a  cornstalk  not  always  filled  out? 

5.  What  part  of  the  flower  are  the  corn  silks?  Where  are  the  other 
parts?  To  what  are  the  silks  attached? 

6.  What  effect  does  wet  weather  at  blossoming  time  have  on  an 
apple  crop?  What  effect  does  dry  weather  at  silking  time  have  on  the 
corn  ears?  "Why  is  a  frost  at  blossoming  time  more  injurious  to  peaches 
than  one  later? 

7.  What  would  be  the  proportion  of  red  and  white  peas  at  the  end 
of  the  fifth  generation  from  the  hybrid  between  them? 

8.  Why  is  the  ratio  in  which  hybrids  break  up  not  exactly  3  to  1 
when  dealing  with  small  numbers? 

9.  Why  do  apples,  peaches  and  potatoes  not  come  true  from  the  seed? 

10.  Are  small  potatoes  as  good  as  large  ones  for  planting? 

11.  Are  the  kernels  of  corn  from  the  tip  and  butt  good  for  planting? 

12.  What  crops,  or  new  varieties  of  crops,  if  any,  have  been  re- 
cently introduced  into  your  region? 

13.  What  seeds  of  farm  crops  are  regularly  shipped  into  your 
county?  Where  do  they  come  from?  Is  the  climate  of  the  region  from 
which  they  came  similar  to  yours? 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
1.  Variation  in  Plants. 

Materials. — A  number  of  elm  leaves  for  each  student,  or  leaves  of 
some  other  plant,  two  corn-stalks  or  other  plants  for  each  student. 

Try  to  find  two  leaves  that  are  alike. 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  leaf  characters,  and  tell  how  the  leaves  differ 
in  each  character. 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  characters  of  the  two  corn  plants  and  state 
the  differences:  Number  of  leaves,  height  and  diameter  of  stalk,  number 
of  parts  in  the  tassel,  number  of  ears,  size  and  shape  of  leaves,  number 
of  ribs,  length  and  diameter  of  ear,  number  of  rows  of  kernels,  color 
of  kernels,  color  of  cob,  shape  of  kernels,  size  of  embryo  and    endo- 


LABORATORY   EXERCISES  33 

sperm,  taste  of  pith  and  kernels.    These  are  but  a  few  of  the  many 
characters  that  may  be  compared. 

2.  Galton's  Law. 

Measure  100  or  more  plants  of  any  kind,  arrange  the  results  in 
order  and  draw  a  curve  representing  the  measurements.  The  height 
of  100  corn-stalks,  length,  weight,  or  circumference  of  100  ears  of  corn, 
or  any  kind  of  measurements  may  be  used. 

3.  Struggle  for  Existence. 

Materials. — An  ear  of  corn  for  each  student,  also  a  purslane  plant, 
pigweed  or  other  weed  with  many  seeds.  How  many  kernels  on  the 
ear  of  corn?   Count  one  row  and  multiply  by  the  number  of  rows. 

How  many  seeds  on  the  pigweed,  or  other  plant?  Count  the  seeds 
on  a  few  branches  and  multiply  by  the  number  of  branches. 

Begin  with  one  kernel  of  corn,  or  one  pigweed  seed,  and  suppose 
that  each  grew  and  developed  as  these  have  done.  How  many  would 
there  be  in  three  years? 

4.  Struggle  for  Existence. 

Field  Trip.  (1)  Go  to  a  weed  "patch."  Let  each  student  take 
one  square  foot  or  more  of  area.  Count  all  the  plants  on  this  area.  How 
many  are  apparently  not  going  to  be  able  to  form  seeds? 

(2)  Examine  an  impruned  tree.  What  proportion  of  the  branches 
have  been  killed  by  crowding  out?  Count  the  buds  on  a  twig.  How 
many  can  develop  into  branches? 

(3)  If  a  woodlot  where  trees  grow  naturally  is  available,  visit  it. 
Find  trees  that  have  been  killed.  What  proportion  survive?  Find 
those  that  are  overshadowed,  but  that  are  still  alive  waiting  for  a 
chance.    Compare  their  ages  with  the  large  trees. 

5.  Struggle  for  Existence  among  the  Buds  of  a  Potato. 
Materials. — Potato  and  dish  of  water. 

Place  a  potato  in  a  glass  of  water  so  that  the  stem  end  touches 
the  water,  and  allow  it  to  grow.  How  many  "eyes"  start?  After  these 
have  grown  some  time,  cut  them  out  and  see  if  the  others  start. 

6.  The  Flowers  of  Some  Crops. 

Materials. — The  flowers  of  such  farm  crops  as  grow  in  the  neighbor- 
hood: Corn,  oats,  wheat,  rye,  rice,  cotton,  etc.  Dried  specimens  may 
be  used,  but  materials  preserved  in  formalin  are  better;  fresh  material 
is  the  best. 


34  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

Find  the  stamens,  anthers,  pistils,  stigmas,  styles  and  ovaries  of 
each.  Make  drawings  of  each.  Compare  the  abundance  of  pollen  in 
a  self-fertilized  plant,  such  as  wheat,  rice,  oats,  with  its  abundance 
in  the  cross-fertilized  plants,  as  corn  or  rye.    Why  this  difference? 

7.  Pollen  Grains. 

Materials. — Same  as  for  No.  6,  and  a  compound  microscope. 
Examine  pollen  grains  of  several  crops  with  a  microscope,  using 
a  one-sixth-inch  objective  (X  about  400).  Make  a  drawing  of  each  kind. 

8.  Hybridization. 

Materials. — Growing  plants  about  to  bloom. 

Let  each  student  cross-fertilize  several  flowers  of  any  plants,  pre- 
ferably crops.  If  possible,  have  the  seed  from  each  cross  saved  and 
planted.   (See  p.  13.) 

9.  Seed  Selection. 

Materials. — A  field  of  any  crop  approaching  maturity.  Each  student 
to  select  ten  plants  for  seed,  giving  reasons  for  the  choice. 

10.  The  Improvement  of  Some  Crop. 

Let  each  student  choose  some  plant  which  he  is  to  try  to  improve 
during  the  next  year:  An  ear-row  test  of  com,  hill-row  test  of  potatoes, 
selection  of  carnations,  or  some  other  plant.  If  the  school  has  land 
available,  this  may  be  done  on  the  experimental  grounds,  or  students 
may  do  the  work  at  home. 


COLLATERAL  READING 

Production  of  Good  Seed  Com,  by  C.  P.  Hartley.  Farmers'  Bulletin 
No.  229.    (Each  member  of  the  class  should  have  a  copy.) 

A  Successful  Hog  and  Seed-corn  Farm,  by  W.  J.  Spillman.  Farm- 
ers' Bulletin  No.  272,  p.  12. 

Corn-breeding  Work  at  the  Experiment  Stations,  by  J.  I.  Shulte. 
Yearbook,  1906,  pp.  279-294. 

New  Citrus  and  Pineapple  Productions  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, by  H.  J.  Webber.   Yearbook,  1906,  pp.  329-346. 

New  Tobacco  Varieties,  by  A.  D.  Shamel.  Yearbook,  1906,  pp. 
387-404. 


COLLATERAL  READING  35 

Sugar-beet  Seed  Breeding,  by  J.  E.  W.  Tracey.  Yearbook,  1904, 
pp. 341-352. 

Improvement  of  Cotton  by  Seed  Selection,  by  Herbert  J.  Webber. 
Yearbook,  1902,  pp.  363-386. 

The  Art  of  Seed  Selection  and  Breeding,  by  A.  D.  Shamel.    Year- 
book, 1906,  pp.  221-236. 
•     Plant-Breeding  on  the  Farm.    Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  334,  pp.  5-9. 

Potato-Breeding.    Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  342,  pp.  10-14. 

Cereals  in  America,  by  T.  F.  Hunt.   Pp.  14-25,  63-68,  185-200. 

Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  by  T.  F.  Himt.  (See  Index  of 
crops.) 

Principles  of  Breeding,  by  E.  Davenport. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  1-85,  53-80. 

In  giving  references,  the  following  abbreviations  are  used: 
"Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,"  "Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,"  "Forest 
Service,"  etc.,  refer  to  bureaus  in  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.  "Farmers'  Bulletin"  and  "Yearbook"  also  refer  to  pub- 
lications by  this  department.  Publications  of  state  experiment  sta- 
tions are  referred  to  by  the  name  of  the  state.  "Iowa  Bulletin  No. 
75"  means  Bulletin  No.  75  of  the  agricultural  experiment  station  that 
is  located  in  Iowa. 

See  Appendix,  Tables  1,  2  and  3,  fol*  method  of  securing  publica- 
tions. 


CHAPTER   III 
PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS 

Plants  may  be  propagated  by  spores,  by  seeds,  and 
by  division.  The  most  important  methods  of  propaga- 
tion on  the  farm  are  by  spores,  seeds,  and  by  several 
methods  of  division,  such  as  creeping  stems  and  root- 
stocks,  tubers,  cuttings,  buds  and  grafts.  Nearly  all 
economic  plants  are  propagated  by  means  of  seeds. 

34.  Spores  differ  from  seeds  in  that  they  do  not  con- 
tain an  embryo,  or  young  plant.  They  are  usually  one- 
celled,  or  few-celled  and  microscopic.  Only  the  lower 
orders  of  plants  form  spores.  The  flowering  plants  form 
seeds.  Spores  may  be  farmed  sexually  or  asexually.  The 
rusty  margins  on  the  underside  of  fern  leaves  contain 
spores.    The  dust  of  a  puff-ball  is  composed  of  countless 

0  0  spores.     Corn    smut,    oat    smut,    oat    rust,    are 

•^^*  masses  of  spores. 

Q^  This   method  of  propagation  is  not  of  great 

Fig.  13.  direct  importance  in  agriculture,  because  only  a 

corn  smut  few  of  these  plants  are  of  use  to  us.   But  spores 

highly  »  . 

magnified,  are  01  great  importance  when  we  come  to  con- 
sider plant  diseases,  for  nearly  all  such  diseases  are  caused 
by  plants  that  reproduce  by  spores. 

35.  Creeping  Stems  and  Rootstocks.  The  branches  of 
white  clover  take  root,  and  so  form  new  plants  (Fig.  14). 
This  enables  it  to  persist  many  years  in  pastures  where 
red  clover  is  exterminated 

(36) 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS 


37 


Buffalo  grass  is  able  to  persist  in  dry  regions  by  means 
of  the  branches  that  take  root,  somewhat  Uke  strawberry 
runners. 

The  most  important  example  of  asexual  reproduction 
is  in  grasses.    All  the  perennial  grasses  increase  by  new 


'p..^.^.  ^f] 


Fig.  14.     Branch  of  white  clover  showing  the  method  of  forming  new  plants 

stems,  or  culms,  that  arise  from  the  nodes  of  the  older 
culms.  Usually  the  new  stems  come  from  the  nodes  that 
are  near  the  ground,  or  below  it.  If  the  new  stems  are 
very  short  or  sessile,  the  process  is  similar  to  the  stooling 
in  wheat  and  oats.  More  often  a  branch  comes  out  more 
or  less  horizontally,  either  above  or  below  ground,  takes 
root  at  its  nodes,  and  sends  up  one  or  more  culms.   Such  a 


38 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


horizontal  branch  is  called  a  stolon.  The  leaves  of  a  stolon 
that  grows  below  ground  are  reduced  to  colorless  scales. 
Such  a  stolon  is  called  a  rootstock.  The  new  stem  is  at  first 
a  branch  of  the  old  one,  but  it  often  forms  its  own  root- 
system,  becomes  independent,  and  in  turn  gives  rise  to 
stolons  and  culms  (Fig.  15).    The  distance  of  the  new  culm 


Fig.  15.     Blue  grass  showing  the  method  of  reproduction  by  underground 
stems,  or  stolons 

from  the  old  one  determines  whether  the  grass  is  spread- 
ing, like  blue  grass,  or  tufted,  like  orchard  grass  and  blue 
joint  grass.    (See  Figs.   91,   92,   and  95.) 

It  is  probable  that  all  grass  plants  would  die  after  the 
formation  of  seed  were  it  not  for  this  means  of  repro- 
duction. The  plant  that  grows  from  a  node  apparently 
forms  seed  but  once.  But  it  may  produce  stolons  and  so 
continue   the  stand   of   grass.     Botanists   have   classified 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS  39 

these  plants  as  perennials,  but  they  are  a  very  different 
kind  of  perennials  from  alfalfa  and  trees. 

The  grasses  with  long  stolons,  like  blue  grass,  tend  to 
form  a  dense  sod,  and  are,  therefore,  best  for  pasture.  The 
less  strongly  stoloniferous  kinds,  as  timothy,  are  usually 
best  for  hay;  probably  because  the  dense  sod  developed 
by  the  strongly  stoloniferous  species  contains  so  many 
stems  that  none  of  them  can  grow  large  enough  to  produce 
a  good  hay  crop. 

36.  Roots.  The  edible  portion  of  the  sweet  potato  is 
an  enlarged  root.  The  potato  plants  are  grown  from  these. 
The  roots  are  put  about  an  inch  apart  in  hotbeds,  with 
about  four  inches  of  dirt  under  them  and  two  inches  on 
top.  The  roots  send  up  many  sprouts  from  adventitious 
buds.  When  these  shoots  have  reached  the  proper  height, 
they  are  pulled.  This  permits  the  potato  to  send  up  more 
sprouts.  The  plants  thus  grown  will  have  a  good  supply 
of  roots  of  their  own  before  they  are  pulled  from  the 
potato.  Sweet  potatoes  are  also  grown  from  cuttings 
taken  from  the  vines  produced  by  the  earUer  plants. 
Occasionally,  the  potatoes  are  cut  into  pieces  and  planted 
like  Irish  potatoes. 

37.  Tubers.  The  field,  or  Irish  potato,  is  a  modified 
stem.  The  eyes  send  out  branches,  so  it  might  be  propa- 
gated in  the  same  manner  as  the  sweet  potato,  but  this 
is  not  profitable. 

Irish  potatoes  are  usually  cut  into  two  or  m6re  pieces 
for  planting.  The  larger  pieces  have  given  the  larger  yields 
in  most  experiments.  Of  ninety-five  experiments  reported 
from  various  experiment  stations,  seventy-six  found  that 
half-potatoes  yielded  more  than  those  cut  to  two  eyes, 


40 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


while  nineteen  secured  greater  yields  from  the  latter. 
Thirty  experimeijts  considered  the  increased  cost  of  seed 
of  the  half-potatoes  over  the  two-eyed  pieces.^  Twenty- 
two  of  these  found  a  net  income  from  the  crop  above  the 
cost  of  seed  in  favor  of  the  half-potatoes,  and  eight  in  favor 
of  two  eyes.^  The  most  profitable  size  of  seed  depends 
on  the  relative  value  of  the  seed  and  of  the  crop. 

The  number  of  eyes  per  piece  above  two  is  of  little 
consequence.    Each  eye  contains  a  number  of  buds.    The 


Fig.  16  Rose  cutting  showing  depth 
to  plant 


size  of  the  piece  determines  the  number  of  sprouts  that 
it  sends  up.  Only  a  small  proportion  of  the  buds  sprout. 
Placing  the  potatoes  in  a  well-lighted  room  some  time 
before  planting  increases  the  yield.  Sprouting  in  a  dark 
room  is  harmful,  as  the  sprouts  produced  are  long  and 
slender.  If  the  potatoes  are  to  be  planted  with  a  machine, 
the  sprouts  should  only  begin  to  appear  before  planting. 
For  a  few  early  potatoes,  it  is  well  to  let  the  sprouts  get 

iPotato  tubers  are  commonly  called  seed.    They  are  seed  in  an  agri- 
cultural sense,  but,  of  course,  not  botanical  seed. 
2  Samuel  Fraser,  The  Potato. 


PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS 


41 


an  inch  long,  and  then  plant  by  hand.    The  Rhode  Island 

station  found  a  gain  of  fifty-four  bushels  .per  acre  due  to 

allowing  potatoes  to  lie  in 

a  well-lighted  room,   at  a 

temperature   of   60   to   75 

degrees   Fahr.,  for  four  to 

six  weeks. 

The  seed  is  best  cut 
the  day  of  planting,  but 
may  be  cut  on  rainy  days 
shortly  before  planting,  to 
save  time. 

38.  Cuttings.  Nearly 
all  herbaceous  plants  and 
many    woody    plants    can 

,  j^     1      (•  X        Fig.  17.     Geranium  cutting  ready  to  plant 

be  propagated  from  cut- 
tings. Alfalfa  and  clover  plants  may  be  so  grown.  Of 
course,  this  is  not  practical  under  ordinary  circumstances; 
but  alfalfa  is  sometimes  propagated  in  this  way  by  plant- 
breeders  when  they  desire  to  multiply  a  desirable  indi- 
vidual. Most  of  our 
house-plants  are  prop- 
agated by  cuttings.  In 
some  cases  the  leaves 
will  grow,  but  usually 
stems  are  taken.  Cur- 
rants, grapes,  willows, 
poplars,  cottonwoods, 
are  commonly  propa- 
gated by  cuttings. 

Fig.  18.     Verbena  cutting  well  rooted  Grape     CUttingS    are 


42 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


made  from  wood  of  the  preceding  season's  growth,  usually 
with  three  buds  on  each  cutting.    These  are  planted  with 

two  buds  below  the  ground. 

Currant  cuttings  are  usu- 
ally made  about  six  inches 
long,  and  are  set  with  one 
bud  above  ground. 

The  hardwood^  cuttings 
are  usually  made  in  winter, 
and  are  heeled-in  out-of- 
doors.  They  are  sometimes 
packed  in  moist  sand  and 
kept  in  a  cellar  a  little  above 
freezing  temperature,  so  that 
the  ends  become  calloused 
over  before  planting. 

39.  Grafting. — Some  plants 

do  not  readily  form  roots  from 

the    stems.     These    must    be 

propagated  from  seeds,  or  by 

budding  or  grafting.    All  the 

tree     fruits    in    America  — 

apples,  pears,  peaches,  plums, 

cherries,  oranges,  etc. 

— are  regularly  grown 

from  buds  and  grafts. 

Pecans  and  chestnuts 

are  often  grafted. 

1  Hardwood  cuttings  are 
those  made  of  the  mature 
wood,  as  grapes,  currants, 
etc.,  as  distinguished  from 
green  cuttings,  as  geraniums. 


Fig.  19. 

A  leaf-cutting  of 

begonia,  well  started 


PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS 


43 


Fruit  trees  have  to  be  propagated  in  this  way  because 
they  do  not  come  true  from  the  seed  (page  23).  It  is  also 
sometimes  desirable  to  be  able  to  take  advantage  of  the  pre- 
vious growth  of  a  tree,  rather  than  to  wait  for  a  new  one  to 
grow.  Top -grafts  in  an 
old  apple  tree  may  begin 
to  bear  the  second  year. 
In  most  regions  it  takes 
ten  or  more  years  for  a 
young  apple  tree  to  reach 
bearing  age. 

The  essential  point  in 
all  budding  and  grafting 
is:  that  the  cambium  lay- 
ers be  placed  together  and 
held  there  until  they  unite. 
The  cambium  layer  is  the  y^- 
living  and  growing  part 
between  the  wood  and  the 
bark. 

40.  Budding.    A  bud  is 
cut    as   shown  in  Fig.  21. 
A  T-shaped  cut  is  then  made  in  the  plant  to  be  budded, 
the  bud  is  inserted  and  tied  with  rafha. 

The  life  history  of  a  peach  tree  before  it  is  planted  in 
the  orchard  is  about  as  follows:  The  pits  are  stored  in 
moist  sand  or  other  material  where  they  will  freeze  during 
the  winter  so  that  they  will  crack.  These  are  planted  in 
the  spring.  In  June,  or  about  September,  the  seedling  tree 
is  budded  from  a  tree  of  the  desired  variety.  The  bud 
is  inserted  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.    After  it   has 


Fig.  20.     A  grape  cutting  and  the  same 
after  one  year's  growth 


44 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


started   growth,   the  raffia   is   cut,    and   the   top   cut   off 
above  the  bud. 

If  the  buds  are  inserted  in  the  summer,  they  will  grow 
during  that  season,  but  will  not  make  a  very  large  growth. 


Fig.  21.  Fig.  22. 

A  bud  ready  for  insertion  and  the        The  bud  in- 
T-shaped  cut  ready  to  receive  it  serted 


Fig.  23. 
The  budding  com- 
pleted 


These  trees  are  called  ''June  buds."  They  are  planted 
in  the  orchard  the  following  spring. 

If  the  buds  are  inserted  in  the  fall,  they  unite  with  the 
tree  but  do  not  start  growth  until  the  following  spring. 
Having  a  larger  root  and  a  long  season,  they  make  much 
larger  trees  than  June  buds.  It  takes  two  years  to  produce 
them,  but  they  are  in  much  greater  demand  than  June 
buds. 

Cherries  and  plums  are  propagated  in  the  same  manner 
as  peaches. 

Apple  trees  are  usually  root-grafted  by  the  nursery- 
man in  the  Middle  West,  but  are  budded  in  the  East.  In 
either  case,  the  seedUng  trees  are  usually  produced  by 
growers  in  the  Middle  West,  who  grow  them  for  one  year. 
These  one-year-old  seedlings  are  planted  in  the  nursery 
and  are  budded  the  first  spring.    The  trees  are  usually 


PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS 


45 


After 


grown  for  two  years  in  the  nursery  rows^-when  they  are 
ready  for  sale. 

41.  Root-Grafting.  Seedling  apples  are  grown  for  a 
year  in  a  rich  soil.  They  are  dug  in  the  fall.  The  root-grafts 
are  made  during  the  winter.  After  the  fibers  are  removed 
from  the  roots,  they  are  cut  into  pieces  about  two  inches 
long.  Smooth,  one-year-old  twigs  of  the  desired  variety 
are  cut  into  about  six-inch  lengths  called  cions.  A  slant- 
ing cut  is  made  on  root  and  cion,  and  a  slit  is  cut  in  each 
so  that  they  will  fit  close  together  (Fig.  24).  This  makes 
three  surfaces  where  the  cambium  layers  rneet. 
being  put  together,  they 
are  wound  with  waxed 
cord.  This  holds  the 
cambium  layers  so  close 
together  that  they  can 
unite.  The  wax  on  the 
cord  holds  it  so  that 
knots  are  unnecessary. 

The  root -grafts  are 
put  into  bundles  of  about 
fifty,  and  are  packed  in 
sand  in  a  cool  cellar. 
By  spring  the  cambium 
layers  should  be  well  cal- 
loused. 

Peaches,  cherries  and 
plums  are  not  often  root- 
grafted.  They  do  not  heal 
so  readily  as  do  apples  and       .J^c,  c1on?nd';fof  unLd^ablT'na?-' 

ural  size;  D,  Root-graft  completed,  much 
pears.  reduced  in  size. 


46 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


42.  Top-grafting.  This  method  is  not  very  often  used, 
except  to  work  over  large  trees.  For  this  purpose,  limbs 
about  one  to  two  inches  in  diameter  are  sawed  off.  The 
cions  are  cut  about  four  inches  long,  and  are  sharpened 


Fig.  25.    Cion  for 
a  top-graft 


Fig.  26.    Cions  properly  in- 
serted for  a  top-graft 


Fig.  27.    A  top-graft 
completed 


on  both  sides  wedge-shaped.  One  is  put  in  at  each  side 
of  the  branch,  care  being  taken  to  keep  the  cambium  layers 
in  contact.  To  be  sure  of  a  good  contact,  the  cions  are  set 
at  a  slight  angle,  and  may  be  cut  thinner  on  the  inside. 
The  ends  of  the  branch  and  the  split  sides  are  all  care- 
fully covered  with  grafting  wax.  Sometimes  many  varie- 
ties of  apples  are  thus  grown  on  one  tree. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS  47 

43.  Relationship  of  Cion  and  Root.  Buds  or  grafts 
will  seldom  grow  on  roots  of  a  very  different  kind.  Apples 
will  grow  on  pear  roots,  and  pears  on  apple,  but  neither 
will  grow  on  peach  roots.  Peaches  will  grow  on  plum 
roots. 

44.  Effect  of  Root  on  Cion.  By  grafting  or  budding, 
a  sour  apple  may  be  grown  on  a  root  that  would  have 
produced  a  sweet  apple.  Early  peaches  may  be  grown 
on  a  root  that  would  have  grown  late  peaches.  Many  argu- 
ments have  been  made  as  to  the  effect  of  the  root  on  the 
fruit.  So  long  as  the  root  is  closely  related  to  the  cion, 
it  has  no  appreciable  effect  on  it.  Fifty  varieties  of  apples 
may  be  grown  on  the  same  tree,  yet  each  will  come  true 
to  its  kind.  This  is  what  we  would  expect  from  the 
functions  of  roots.  If  the  root  furnishes  the  proper 
amount  of  soluble  food  from  the  soil,  the  top  will  not  be 
affected.  If  the  root  does  not  furnish  enough  food,  the 
tree  may  die  or  be  dwarfed.  Dwarf  pear  trees  are  secured 
by  budding  them  on  quince  roots.  Dwarf  apple  trees  are 
produced  by  budding  on  the  roots  of  the  Doucin  or  Para- 
dise apples,  which  are  dwarfs. 

SEEDS 

45.  Nature  of  Seeds.  A  seed  consists  of  a  young  plant, 
or  embryo,  with  a  supply  of  food  either  in  the  embryo 
or  surrounding  it,  all  enclosed  in  the  seed  coats.  The 
food  is  formed  by  the  parent  plant,  and  is  stored  up  in 
the  seed  to  give  the  young  plant  a  start  in  life.  Some 
seeds  have  a  small  amount  of  stored  food,  while  others 
have  enough  to   keep  the  young  plant  growing  several 


48 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


Coafi 

Fig.  28 
Section  of  a  bean- 
seed  showing  the  coty- 
ledon, plumule  and  cau 
licle  which  constitute 
the  embryo.  Food 
stored  in  the  cotyledons. 


weeks  without  having  to  prepare  much  food  for  itself. 
As  the  seedUng  develops,  it  gradually  makes  more  and 
more  of  its  own  food,  until  finally  the  stored  food  is  no 
longer  needed. 

46.  Importance  of  Vigorous  Germina- 
tion. The  vigor  of  the  embryo  often  Hm- 
its  the  crop  that  is  to  be  grown.  Some 
kernels  of  corn  germinate  promptly  and 
vigorously,  others  germinate  slowly  and 
form  weak  plants,  others  fail  to  germi- 
nate at  all.  Often  a  seed  will  have  vigor 
enough  to  start  germination,  but  not  enough  to  be  able 
to  establish  itself  in  the  soil.  It  is  not  enough  that  a  seed 
germinate;  it  should  germinate  vigorously. 

47.  Germination  Tests  of   Seed   Corn.    The  Iowa  Ex- 
periment  Station  examined  3,300   samples   of  seed  corn 

for  farmers  in  1905.  Of  this  number, 
an  average  of  19  per  cent  of  the  seed 
was  entirely  dead,  and  21  per  cent 
more  was  so  weak  as  to  be  useless, 
leaving  only  60  per  cent  of  good  seed. 
In  the  same  year,  counts  of  the  number 
of  stalks  per  hill  were  made  in  over 
one  thousand  corn  fields.  These  showed 
an  average  of  66  per  cent  of  a  stand. ^ 
This  may  have  been  an  unfavorable 
season,  but  every  year  there  is  an 
enormous  loss  in  yield  of  corn  because 
of  dead  seed  or  weak  seed. 

The  kernels  on  an  ear  of  corn  are  usually  about  equally 

iJowa  Bulletin  No.  77 


Fig.  29.  Section 
of  a  kernel  of  corn. 
Food  is  stored  in  the 
cotyledon  and  in  the 
endosperm  which  sur- 
rounds the  embryo. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS 


49 


vigorous.  Hence  a  test  of  a  few  kernels  taken  from  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  ear  will  give  a  fairly  accurate  idea  of  the 
ear.  Since  it  takes  only  about  a  dozen  ears  to  plant  an 
acre,  it  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  test  every  ear.  And, 
since  one  ear  plants  so  large  an  area,  it  follows  that  a  single 
ear  that  germinates  poorly  may  decrease  the  yield  of  corn 
several  bushels.  One  of  the  most  important,  as  well  as 
one  of  the  easiest  ways  to  increase  the  yield  of  corn  is 
to  test  the  vigor  of  every  ear  before  planting,  and  use  for 
seed  only  those  that  show  a  good  germination  test.  The 
germination  test  should  be 
made  before  the  spring 
work  begins. 

Secure  a  box  about  two 
by  three  feet  and  six  inches 
deep.  Fill  this  half  full  of 
saw-dust,  sand  or  soil.  Take 
a  white  cloth  a  little  larger 
than  the  box  and,  with  a 
lead  pencil,  rule  into  squares  about  one  and  one-half  inches 
each  way.  Number  each  square.  Lay  this  cloth  over  the 
sawdust  or  other  material,  and  tack  to  the  box  in  a  few 
places.  Put  enough  sawdust  into  a  sack,  so  that  it  will 
fit  into  the  box,  and  cover  it  an  inch  deep.  Moisten  the 
sawdust  of  the  box  and  bag. 

Lay  out  the  ears  of  corn  in  rows  on  the  floor  or  on 
shelves,  and  number  them  to  correspond  with  the  squares 
on  the  cloth  in  the  box.  Remove  six  kernels  from  each 
ear,  taking  them  from  different  places  on  the  ear.  Put 
the  kernels  from  ear  1  on  square  1,  those  from  ear  2  on 
square  2,  etc.    When  all  the  kernels  are  in  place,  lay  a 


Fig.  31.     Ears  of  corn  laid  out  for  germi- 
nation test.    (After  Holden) 


50 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


piece  of  cloth  over  them  and  cover  with  the  sack.  Keep 
the  box  in  a  warm  place  and  moisten  it  if  necessary. 
The  kernels  will  germinate  in  four  to  six  days.  Remove 
the  cover  carefully  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  kernels,  and 
examine. 


Fig.  32.     Germination  test  of  different  ears  of  corn.   Discard  ears  1,  2,  3,  4,  5, 
7,  9,  11,  12,  15,  20 

Fig.  32  shows  the  result  of  such  a  test.  The  kernels 
from  ears  1,  11  and  20  all  failed  to  grow.  One  or  more  of 
those  from  ears  2,  3,  4,  5,  9,  12  and  15  failed.  The  ears 
from  which  these  came  are  all  discarded.  Kernels  from  ear 
7  all  germinated,  but  the  growth  is  so  weak  that  this  ear  is 
also  discarded.  While  making  this  test,  the  very  best 
ears  may  be  selected  for  an  ear-row  test. 


PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS 


51 


48.  Seed  Analysis  and  Valuation.  Corn  seed  is  always 
pure  seed,  but  with  other  farm  seeds  there  is  another 
factor  to  consider, — the  amount  of  weed  seeds  and  dirt. 
This  is*more  important  with  the  small  seeds,  such  as  grass 
and  clover,  than  with  the  larger  seeds,  such  as  wheat  and 
oats.  The  small  seeds  are  more  Ukely  to  contain  weeds, 
the  weeds  are  more  likely  to  escape  notice,  and  are 
harder  to  remove  from  small  seeds.  A  sample  of  seed 
may  contain: 

(1)  Live,  or  viable  seed. 

(2)  Dead  seed. 

(3)  Seeds  of  other  useful  plants. 

(4)  Broken  seeds,  dirt,  chaff,  etc. 

(5)  Weed  seeds  of  the  kinds  common  in  the  region. 

(6)  Noxious  weed  seeds,  even  a  few  of  which  condemn 
the  seed. 

49.  Germination  Tests.  Lay  a  moist  blotter  or  a  piece 
of  moist  cotton  flannel 
on  a  plate.  Count  out 
one  hundred  seeds,  just 
as  they  come.  Put  them 
on  the  blotter;  cover 
with  a  piece  of  paper, 
and  then  with  another 
moist  blotter.  Lay  over 
this  a  piece  of  glass,  or 
cover  with  an  inverted 
plate.  Keep  in  a  moderately  warm  place,  and  examine 
from  time  to  time.  Remove  the  sprouted  seeds,  and 
count  them  to  get  the  per  cent  of  germination.  Several 
samples  may  be  tested  at  one  time  on  a  plate  (Fig.  33). 


Fig.  33. 


Method  of  testing  the  germination 
of  seeds 


52 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


60.  Purity  and  Germination  Test.  For  a  more  careful 
test;  a  sample  is  weighed.  It  is  then  separated  into:  (1) 
pure  seed;  (2)  inert  matter — dirt,  broken  seed,  etc.;  (3) 
weed  seed.  Each  of  these  is  weighed.  The  germinating 
power  of  the  pure  seed  is  then  found.  The  per  cent  of  purity 
multiplied  by  the  per  cent  of  germination  gives  the  per 
cent  of  live  or  viable  seed.  If  a  sample  of  alfalfa  seed  con- 
tains 90  per  cent  of  pure  seed,  and  90  per  cent  of  this 
germinates,  it  contains  81  per  cent  of  viable  seed. 

51.  What  is  the  Cheapest  Seed.  The  cheapest  seed 
is  usually  the  most  expensive.  The  following  analyses 
show  the  extremes  of  low-grade,  low-priced  red  clover 
seed,  and  high-grade,  high-priced  seed:^ 


Price  per  100  pounds 

Weed  seeds 

Dirt,  sticks,  etc 

Red  clover  seed 

Red  clover  seed  that  germinated 

Number  weed  seeds  per  pound 

Actual  cost  of  100  pounds  clover  seed  that 
germinated 


Red  Clover  Seed 


Low  Grade       High  Grade 


$5.20 

25.78% 
26.16% 
48.06% 
18.26% 
139,727 

$28.48 


$15.00 

.09% 

1.08% 

98.83% 

95.86% 

150 

$15.65 


The  seed  that  could  be  purchased  for  $5.20  per  hun- 
dred pounds  was  nearly  twice  as  expensive  as  the  seed 
that  cost  $15  per  hundred,  because  it  contained  so  little 
live  seed.  The  low-grade  seed  should  not  have  been  sown 
at  any  price,  because  of  the  weed  seeds.  If  one  sowed  such 
seed  at  the  usual  rate  of  sowing,  he  would  not  only  fail 
to  get  a  good  stand  of  clover,  but  would  be  sowing  weeds. 

1  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  260 


PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS 


53 


If  one  sample  of  seed  contains  90  per  cent  of  live  seed 
and  costs  $9,  and  another  sample  contains  80  per  cent 
of  viable  seed  and  costs  $8,  they  would  appear  to  be 
equally  cheap.  But  the  former  sample  is  to  be  preferred, 
because,  if  a  sample  germinates  poorly,  we  may  expect 


Fig.  34.     Poor  clover  seed  contain- 
ing many  weeds 


Fig.  35.     Good  pure  clover  seed 


that  the  same  causes  that  killed  many  of  the  seeds  weak- 
ened all  the  others. 

There  is  one  case  in  which  the  cheaper  seed  might  be 
best,  and  that  is,  if  the  other  contained  seed  of  some  very 
serious  weed  that  was  not  present  in  the  cheaper  kind. 

52.  Size  and  Weight  of  Seeds.  Many  experiments 
have  been  tried  with  large  and  small  seeds,  and  with  seeds 
of  high  and  low  specific  gravity.  In  the  majority  of  trials, 
the  larger  and  heavier  seeds  have  proved  best.  Usually 
the  small  seeds  are  lighter  for  their  size,  or  have  a  less 
specific  gravity,  than  the  large  seeds. 

Heavy  cotton  seed  separated  by  an  air-blast  was  grown 
in  comparison  with  unseparated  seed  at  Lamar  and  Harts- 
ville,  S.  C,  in  1906.^  At  each  place,  equal  areas  of  about 
an  acre  were  planted  with  each  kind  of  seed.  The  average 
yields  of  cotton  were: 

Heavy  seed 1,106  pounds 

Unseparated  seed     1,010  pounds 

I  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  285 


54  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

At  the  Nebraska  station,  where  equal  weights  of  wheat 
were  used  for  eight  years,  the  Ught  seeds  gave  practically 
the  same  yield  as  the  heavy.  Similar  results  were  obtained 
in  Ohio  and  Kansas. 

An  ordinary  fanning-mill  is  of  use  in  removing  weed 
seeds,  and  to  some  extent  in  removing  the  lightest  seeds. 
It  does  not  usually  remove  the  moderately  Ught  ones. 
Probably  the  removal  of  the  weed  seeds  is  the  most  valu- 
able result. 

53.  Seed  Testing  Is  Plant  Selection.  All  seed  selection, 
whether  it  be  for  germination  or  size  and  weight  of  seeds, 
is  really  plant  selection.  The  seed  is  a  plant.  Its  size  and 
the  vigor  of  its  germination  are  some  of  the  first  evidences 
of  its  individual  characteristics.  Seed  selection  is  one  step 
in  plant-breeding. 

54.  Storage  of  Seed.  We  must  always  remember  that 
seeds  are  alive.  It  is  true  that  they  are  dormant,  and  can 
stand  some  adverse  conditions,  but  they  are  not  immune 
from  injury.  One  of  the  chief  causes  for  the  poor  germi- 
nation of  Kentucky  blue  grass  seed  is  the  heating  during 
the  curing  process.  Any  seed  that  smells  musty  needs  to 
be  tested  before  being  accepted. 

Seed  corn  is  not  hurt  by  freezing  when  it  is  very  dry, 
but  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States  it  will  absorb 
enough  water  from  the  atmosphere  so  that  freezing  will 
damage  it.  Except  in  dry  regions,  the  seed  corn  should 
be  stored  in  a  warm  room.  A  good  method  of  storing  is 
to  tie  up  with  binder  twine  (Fig.  36)  and  hang  in  the 
attic.  If  there  is  danger  of  a  frost  before  the  corn  is  thor- 
oughly dry  in  the  fall,  the  seed  corn  should  be  husked 
and    hung   up   in  a  dry  room    before    freezing    weather. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS  55 

Light  frosts  will  not  hurt  it  while  it  is  on  the  stalks.    Seed 
corn  should  never  freeze  when  moist. 

55.  Importation  of  Low-Grade  Seed.  The  United  States 
exports  large  quantities  of  clover  seed,  and  imports  smaller 
quantities  of  low-grade  seed.  One  reason  for  this  is  that 
Canada  and  most  of  the  European  countries  have  laws 


Fig.  36.     Method  of  drying  seed  corn.    (After  Holden.) 

for  seed  inspection.  Screenings,  very  weedy  seed,  or  seed 
of  low  vitality  cannot  be  sold,  but  can  be  exported  from 
those  countries.  We  shall  probably  have  laws  for  seed 
inspection  in  this  country  in  the  future.  In  the  mean- 
time, every  farmer  will  have  to  examine  his  own  seed, 
or  send  it  to  the  State  Experiment  Station  for  examina- 
tion. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  important  farm  plants  of  your  region  and 
tell  how  each  is  propagated. 

2.  Do  you  know  of  any  fruit  trees  that  bear  two  kinds  of  fruit? 

3.  Give  the  life  history  of  the  apple  tree  from  the  time  the  seed  ia 
planted  until  the  tree  is  set  in  the  orchard. 


56  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

4.  What  time  of  year  is  it  easiest  to  make  willow  whistles?   Why? 

5.  What  becomes  of  a  nail  that  is  driven  into  a  tree?    Why? 

6.  Do  farmers  in  your  region  grow  their  own  fruit  trees?  Grape- 
vines? Currant  bushes?  Would  it  pay  them  to  do  so? 

7.  What  seeds  are  shipped  out  of  your  region  for  seed  purpose? 

8.  What  seeds  are  shipped  into  the  region? 

9.  What  bad  weeds  in  your  region  have  come  with  the  seed? 

10.  How  do  the  farmers  of  the  region  store  their  seed  corn? 

11.  Is  there  any  trouble  in  getting  a  good  stand  of  corn?  Was  the 
stand  good  this  year?  Count  the  stalks  in  a  short  row  and  determine 
the  per  cent  of  a  stand. 

12.  Which  grow  most  rapidly  at  first,  plants  from  large  seeds  like 
beans  or  those  from  small  seeds  like  radishes? 

13.  Does  the  fanning-mill  or  air-blast  separate  seeds  on  the  basis  of 
weight  or  of  specific  gravity? 

14.  How  long  do  some  of  the  more  important  seeds  of  your  section 
retain  their  vitality?    (See  Appendix,  Table  4.) 

15.  What  are  the  legal  weights  per  bushel  of  a  few  of  the  more 
important  products  in  your  section?    (See  Appendix,  Table  5.) 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

11.  Spores. 

Materials. — Compound  microscope,  corn  smut,  oat  smut  or  spores 
of  any  other  kind. 

Examine  the  spores  (X500).  Make  drawings  of  them.  How  do 
they  produce  new  plants? 

12.  Relation  of  Habit  of  Growth  of  a  Grass  to  its  Value  for  Hay  or 

Pasture. 
Field  Trip. — What  are  the  best  pasture  grasses  in  the  region? 
Examine  them  to  see  whether  they  are  strongly  stoloniferous.  The 
stolon  always  arises  from  within  the  leaf  sheath;  if  it  remains  there,  its 
growth  is  intravaginal.  If  it  breaks  through  the  leaf  sheath,  it  is  called 
extravaginal.  Which  way  do  the  stolons  of  these  pasture  grasses 
develop?  What  are  the  best  hay  grasses  of  the  region?  Examine 
them  in  the  same  manner. 

13.  To  Make  Grafting-wax  and  Waxed  String. 

Materials. — One  pound  resin,  one-h&lf  pound  beeswax,  one-fourth 
pound  tallow,  one  ball  of  No.  18  knitting  cotton.  Larger  or  smaller 
amounts  for  classes  above  or  below  ten. 


LABORATORY   EXERCISES  57 

Pulverize  the  resin;  melt  all  the  materials  together.  Drop  the  ball 
of  cotton  into  the  melted  wax.  Remove  in  about  five  minutes,  and 
you  will  have  w-axed  string  ready  for  making  root  grafts.  Pour  the  wax 
into  cold  water.  Grease  the  hands  and  pull  and  work  the  wax  until 
it  becomes  of  a  straw  color. 

14.  Cambium  Layer. 

Materials. — Twigs  several  years  old  taken  from  any  tree.  Make  a 
drawing  of  a  cross-section  of  the  twig,  and  indicate:  (1)  The  pith; 
(2)  annual  rings;  (3)  cambium  layer;  (4)  bark.  The  cambium  layer 
is  the  layer  between  the  wood  and  the  bark.  It  is  this  layer  that  breaks 
apart  when  the  bark  is  removed.  Why  is  the  bark  more  easily  removed 
in  summer  than  in  winter?  How  old  is  the  twig?  Why  is  there  a  ring 
at  the  close  of  each  year's  growth?  Is  the  wood  in  the  inner  or  the  outer 
part  of  the  ring  the  harder? 

15.  To  Make  a  Root  Graft. 

Materials. — Waxed  string  prepared  in  No.  13.  Seedling  apple 
trees  one  or  two  years  old.  Smooth,  one-year-old  twigs  from  apple 
trees  of  the  desired  variety. 

Let  each  student  make  about  twenty-five  or  more  root  grafts  ac- 
cording to  directions  (page  45).  These  may  be  taken  home  to  be 
planted.  They  should  be  packed  in  sand  and  kept  moist  and  cool  until 
spring.  The  school  can  raise  its  own  seedling  apples,  peaches,  etc., 
or  may  get  students  to  raise  them. 

16.  To  Bud  a  Tree. 

Materials. — Raffia,  knives,  growing  trees.    If  possible,  have  impor- 
tant trees  of  the  region. 

Cut  the  buds  as  shown  in  Fig.  21.  Make  the  T-shaped  cut  through 
the  bark  of  the  tree.  Lift  the  bark  carefully  and  insert  the  bud.  Tie 
firmly  with  raffia. 

17.  To  Top-graft  a  Tree. 

Materials. — Saw,  knife,  chisel,  hammer,  grafting  wax,  apple  trees 
or  other  trees. 

Perform  the  operation  as  directed  (page  46).  If  possible,  this 
should  be  done  on  a  tree;  but  limbs  of  trees  may  be  used  in  the  labora- 
tory to  teach  the  method  if  outdoor  work  cannot  be  given. 

18.  To  Make  Hard  Wood  Cuttings. 

Materials. — Stems  of  grapes,  currants,  willows,  or  other  woody 
plants  of  the  region. 


58  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

Make  the  cuttings  as  described  (page  42).  Each  student  should 
make  a  number  of  useful  ones  to  be  planted  at  home. 

19.  The  Bean  Embryo. 

Materials. — Beans  soaked  for  a  day,  enough  to  supply  each  student 
with  several. 

Make  a  drawing  of  the  split  bean  showing  the  cotyledons,  plumule 
and  radicle.  Indicate  each  part.  How  many  parts  are  there  to  a  bean 
seed?  What  is  the  function  of  each  part?  Which  parts  make  up  the 
embryo?  In  what  part  is  the  food  stored?  What  parts  come  above 
ground  when  the  bean  grows?  Is  the  plant  monocotyledonous  or 
dicotyledonous? 

20.  The  Kernel  of  Corn. 

Materials. — Com  soaked  for  a  day  in  cold  water,  or  for  twenty 
minutes  in  hot  water. 

Cut  the  tip  from  a  kernel  of  corn  and  make  a  drawing  of  the  cross 
section.  Indicate  the  endosperm,  cotyledons  or  scutellum,  plumule 
(or  radicle  if  cut  very  close  to  the  top).  Split  a  kernel  of  corn  the  narrow 
way  and  one  the  broad  way.  Make  drawings  of  each  and  indicate  the 
parts.  Is  the  food  stored  in  the  embryo,  as  in  the  case  of  the  bean? 
WTiat  parts  come  above  ground  when  the  corn  grows?  Is  the  corn 
monocotyledonous  or  dicotyledonous? 

21.  Germination  Test  of  Corn. 

Materials. — Germination  box  and  fifty  or  more  ears  of  corn. 

Make  the  test  as  described  (page  49).  Compare  the  appearance 
of  ears  that  germinated  well  and  that  germinated  poorly.  Are  there 
any  ways  of  distinguishing  them?  Make  cross-sections  of  kernels  from 
each  class.  Compare  the  appearance  of  the  embryos,  or  "chits."  The 
more  vigorous  kernels  usually  have  a  bright,  "cheerful"  appearance, 
are  plump  and  full  at  the  tips,  and  have  a  large  cream-colored  germ. 
See  how  well  you  can  determine  the  germination  in  advance  by  these 
characters. 

22.  Analysis  of  Clover  Seed. 

Materials. — Balances  weighing  to  centigrams  or  milligrams,  and 
hand-lenses.  Two  samples  of  clover  seed  with  the  prices.  Alfalfa, 
timothy  or  other  small  seeds  may  be  used, 

Weigh  out  a  one-gram  sample  of  the  seed.  Separate  it  into: 
(1)  pure  seed;  (2)  inert  matter,  broken  seed,  dirt,  etc.;  (3)  weed 
seeds.    Weigh  each.    Make  a  germination  test  of  the  pure  seeds  as 


COLLATERAL   READING 


59 


directed  (page  51).   Repeat  for  the  second  sample.    Record  the  results 
in  the  note-book  as  follows: 


Second 
Sample 


1  gram 


Weight  of  sample 

Weight  of  pure   seed 

Weight  of  inert  matter 

Weight  of  weed  seed 

Per  cent  of  purity 

Per  cent  of  germination 

Per  cent  of  pure  viable  seed  .... 

Price  per  pound 

Cost  per  pound  of  pure  viable  seed 


If  the  school  has  a  set  of  weed  seeds,  identify  the  kinds  present 
and  the  number  of  seeds  of  each  kind. 

Which  sample  of  seed  would  it  be  best  to  purchase?  Why? 

23.   Storage  of  Seed  Corn. 

Collect  a  hundred  ears  of  corn  in  the  fall  before  it  has  been  frozen. 
Store  fifty  in  a  dry  moderately  warm  room.  Leave  the  others  in  a  corn- 
crib.   Next  spring  make  a  germination  test  of  each  sample. 


COLLATERAL  READING 

Seed  of  Red  Clover  and  Its  Impurities.   Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  260. 

The  Production  of  Good  Seed  Corn.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  229, 
pp.  17-20. 

The  Farmer's  Interest  in  Good  Seed.    Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  111. 

Alfalfa  Seed.    Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  194. 

The  Advantages  of  Planting  Heavy  Cotton  Seed.  Farmers'  Bul- 
letin No.  286. 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Bulletin  No.  186. 

The  School  Garden.    Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  218. 

Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America.    Pp.  15-23. 

Cereals  in  America.    Pp.  197-201. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture.    Vol.  I,  pp.  131-152. 


CHAPTER   IV 

PLANT  FOOD 

"I  dropped  a  seed  into  the  earth.  It  grew,  and  the  plant  was  mine. 
It  was  a  wonderful  thing,  this  plant  of  mine.  I  did  not  know  its  name, 
and  the  plant  did  not  bloom.  All  I  know  is  that  I  planted  something 
apparently  as  lifeless  as  a  grain  of  sand  and  that  there  came  forth  a 
green  and  living  thing,  unlike  the  seed,  unlike  the  soil  in  which  it 
stood,  unlike  the  air  into  which  it  grew.  No  one  could  tell  me  why  it 
grew,  nor  how.  It  had  secrets  all  its  own,  secrets  that  baffle  the  wisest 
men;  yet  this  plant  was  my  friend.  It  faded  when  I  withheld  the  light, 
it  withered  when  I  neglected  to  give  it  water,  it  flourished  when  I  sup- 
plied its  simple  needs.  One  week  I  went  away  on  a  vacation,  and 
when  I  returned  the  plant  was  dead;  and  I  missed  it."l 

56.  Elements  Required  for  Plant  and  Animal  Growth.^ 

Of  the  seventy  different  chemical  elements,  only  thirteen 
are  usually  found  in  plants  and  animals.  These  elements 
are: 

Oxygen  Calcium 

Hydrogen  Magnesium 

Nitrogen  •  Iron 

Carbon  Chlorin 

Sulfur  Sodium 

Phosphorus  Silicon 

Potassium 

Only  the  first  ten  of  these  are  considered  necessary 
for  plant  growth,  but  the  last  three  are  always  found  in 
plants,  and  may  serve  some  useful  purpose.  Manganese 
and  one  or  two  other  elements  occur,  but  are  not  essential. 

iL.  H.  Bailey.   Junior  Naturalist  Monthly.  February,  1903. 
2If  the  class  has  not  studied  chemistry,  a  few  elementary  lessons  on 
this  subject  should  precede  this  chapter,  see  manual. 

(60) 


PLANT   FOOD  '  61 

Since  all  animals  live  on  plants,  either  directly  or  in- 
directly, they  are  composed  of  these  same  elements.  The 
salt  and  water  that  an  animal  uses  only  adds  to  the  amount 
of  sodium,  chlorin,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  that  the  plants 
furnish. 

If  any  one  of  the  first  ten  elements  is  lacking,  the  plant 
will  die.  Of  some,  very  small  quantities  are  required, 
but  this  small  amount  is  necessary.  Many  experiments 
have  been  performed  to  test  this.  Plants  have  been  grown 
in  distilled  water  to  which  all  these  elements  but  one 
have  been  added.  Fig.  51  shows  such  a  wheat  plant 
which  had  all  the  elements  of  plant  food  except  nitrogen. 
The  same  results  are  obtained  when  any  nine  are  fur- 
nished, but  the  tenth  omitted.  The  carbon  is  furnished 
by  the  air,  so  that  is  not  put  into  the  water.  The  legumes 
are  also  able  to  take  nitrogen  from  the  air  under  certain 
conditions. 

57.  Sources  of  Plant  Food.  For  a  long  time  no  one  knew 
where  the  plant  got  its  food.  Some  argued  that  its  food 
came  from  the  air,  and  others  thought  it  came  from  the 
soil.  Only  within  the  last  fifty  years  has  the  question  been 
entirely  answered.  We  now  know  that  a  plant  secures 
its  food  from  both  the  soil  and  the  air, — the  larger  part 
coming  from  the  air. 

Oxygen  and  hydrogen,  chemically  united  in  the  form 
of  water,  are  taken  up  by  the  roots  from  the  soil,  but  all 
water  comes  indirectly  from  the  air. 

The  carbon  is  obtained  from  the  air  by  the  leaves  in 
the  form  of  carbon  dioxid. 

The  nitrogen  comes  from  the  soil,  except  in  the  case 
of  legumes,  which  are  able  to  take  nitrogen  from  both 


62 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


the  air  and  the  soil  (page  116).  However,  the  ultimate 
source  of  all  nitrogen  is  from  the  air.  The  nitrogen  of  the 
soil  was  obtained  from  the  air  (page  116). 

58.  Water,  Dry  Matter  and  Ash.  If  a  plant  is  heated 
for  some  time  at  a  temperature  a  little  above  boiling, 
the  water  is  driven  off.  By  weighing  before  and  after 
drying,  the  percentages  of  water  and  of  dry  matter  are 
determined.  When  the  dry  matter  is  heated  very  hot,  a 
part  of  it  burns  and  leaves  ash.  The  ash  contains  all  the 
potassium,  magnesium,  calcium,  iron,  phosphorus,  chlorin, 
sodium  and  silicon  of  the  plant,  and  some  of  the  sulfur. 
The  ash,  therefore,  contains    all   the  material   that  came 

from  the  soil,  except  part  of  the 
sulfur,  and  the  nitrogen. 

59.  Relative  Amounts  of  the 
Different  Elements  in  Plants. 
Oxygen  and  hydrogen,  chemi- 
cally united  in  the  form  of 
water,  make  up  the  largest  part 
of  all  growing  plants.  Turnips, 
beets  and  pumpkins  are  about 
nine-tenths  water.  They  contain 
a  larger  percentage  of  water  than  does  milk.  The  per- 
centage of  water  is  much  less  in  hay  or  grain,  but  few 
plant  products  contain  less  than  10  per  cent  of  water, 
even  when  air-dry. 

.Hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  also  contained  in  other 
compounds  of  the  plant.  In  these  compounds  they  make 
up  about  40  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter. 

Carbon  is  next  in  importance.  About  half  of  the  dry 
matter  is  carbon. 


Fig.  37.  Composition  of  the 
potato:  1,  Water;  2,  compounds 
of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen, 
chiefly  starch;  3,  nitrogen;  4,  all 
other  elements 


PLANT   FOOD 


68 


Nitrogen  sometimes  makes  as  high  as  4  per  cent  of  the 
dry  matter. 

No  other  element  occurs  in  nearly  so  large  an  amount, 
and  the  amount  of  most  of  them  is  very  small  indeed. 
It  may  not  require  over  a  pound  of  iron  to  grow  an  acre 
of  hay,  but  this  iron  is  absolutely  necessary.  How  small 
a  part  of  the  plant's  substance  is  obtained  from  the 
soil  is  shown  by  the  following  table.  Only  one  pound  in  a 
hundred  of  turnips  comes  from  the  solid  matter  of  the  soil, 
and  a  little  over  3  per  cent  of  the  grain  of  corn: 

Proportions  of  Different  Elements  in  Plants 


Timothy 
Hay 


Water  (hydrogen  and  oxygen) 
Carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen 

in  compounds    

Nitrogen 

All  other  elements 


Corn 
Grain 

Green  Com 
Fodder 

Turnips 

Per  cent 
10.6 

86.1 
1.6 
1.7 

Per  cent 
79.3 

19.2 
0.3 
1.2 

Per  cent 
90.5 

8.5 
0.2 
0.8 

Per  cent 

13.2 

81.4 
0.9 

4.5 


60.  Elements  Likely  to  Be  Deficient  in  Soils.  Since 
ten  elements  are  absolutely  necessary  for  plant  growth, 
if  any  one  of  these  does  not  occur  in  sufficient  quantities, 
the  crop  will  suffer.  Hydrogen  and  oxygen  (in  the  form  of 
water),  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium  and  sometimes 
calcium,  are  not  always  available  in  sufficient  quantities 
for  the  production  of  good  crops.  The  other  elements 
are  practically  always  present  in  abundance. 

Water  is  most  frequently  the  factor  that  limits  the  size 
of  the  crop.  It  is  increased  or  conserved  by  irrigation, 
tillage  and  other  farm  operations. 

61.  Functions  of  the  Different  Elements.  Some  text- 
books of  botany  mention  iron  as  the  element  necessary 


64 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


for  formation  of  chlorophyll,  but  it  is  no  more  necessary 
than  phosphorus  and  magnesium,  and  probably  all  the 
other  elements  have  to  do  with  it  either  directly  or  indirectly. 
A  farmer  interprets  a  light  green  color  as  indicating  a 
lack  of  nitrogen, — not  of  iron.  Plants  that  have  an  abun- 
dance of  manure,  or  nitrogenous  fertilizers,  are  dark  green, 
while  those  that  do  not  have  enough  nitrogen  are  light 
green.  An  abundance  of  nitrogen  promotes  growth  and 
leafiness  in  plants.  Too  much  nitrogen  makes  oats  gro\^ 
so  rapidly  that  they  are  likely  to  fall  down,  hence,  manure 
or  nitrogen,  in  fertilizers,  is  not  often 
applied  on  oats.  A  shortage  of  phos- 
phorus and  potassium  is  more  likely  to 
show  in  poorly  filled  seeds  than  in  lack 
of  vigor  of  growth.  But  we  cannot  sep- 
arate out  one  particular  element  and  say 
that  it  has  one  specific  function  and  that 
one  only. 

HOW  THE   PLANT   GETS    ITS   FOOD  * 

62.  Root-Hairs.  Germinate  some  oats 
or  clover  seed  as  directed  on  page  51. 
Examine  the  young  roots  for  root-hairs. 
The  root  is  fairly  covered  with  these 
minute  hairs,  as  in  Fig.  38.  These  hairs 
are  not  young  roots.  They  are  single- 
celled  tubes  that  absorb  the  soil  solution. 
Remove  one  of   these  seedlings,  and  see 

how  easily  these  root-hairs  are  destroyed   when  handled. 

It  would,  of    course,  be  very  difficult  to  remove  a  plant 


Fig.  38. 
Root  -  hairs    of    a 
radish .  These  absorb 
most   of    the    water 
for  the  plant. 


PLANT    FOOD 


65 


from  the  soil  without  destroying  them.  The  roots  take 
some  part  in  absorbing  the  soil  solution,  but  the  root- 
hairs  do  most  of  this  work. 

63.  Osmosis.  Tie  a  piece  of  parchment  or  a  piece  of 
bladder  over  the  end  of  a  thistle  tube.  Fill  this  with  a 
strong  solution  of  salt.  Invert  in  water 
so  that  the  height  of  the  water  and  the 
solution  are  the  same.  Allow  this  to 
stand  for  some  time  and  observe  the 
result.  The  height  of  the  water  in  the 
tube  rises  above  that  outside  the  tube. 
This  shows  that  the  water  has  passed 
through  the  membrane  more  rapidly  than 
the  salt  solution.  The  water  passes 
through  the  membrane  more  readily 
than  the  denser  solution. 

Pare  a  potato  and  cut  slices  from  it. 
Place  some  of  these  in  water  and  some 
in  a  strong  solution  of  salt.  Examine 
in  about  an  hour.  The  pieces  in  water 
will  be  found  very  plump  and  rigid. 
This  shows  that  water  passes  into  the 
potato  faster  than  the  sap  passes  out  of  it.  The  pieces 
in  the  salt  solution  will  be  flexible  or  wilted.  This  shows 
that  the  concentrated  salt  solution  did  not  pass  into  the 
potato  cells  so  fast  as  the  cell  sap  was  lost.  The  potato 
"wilts"  when  immersed  in  salt  solution. 

The  process  of  the  interchange  of  fluids,  either  liquids 
or  gases,  through  a  membrane  is  called  osmosis.  Whenever 
a  plant  or  animal  membrane  separates  two  solutions,  there 
is  an  interchansre  of  the  two.    The  less  dense  the  solution, 


Fig.  39. 
Apparatus  ready  for 
osmosis  experiment  to 
show   how    root -hairs 
take  in  soil-water. 


66  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

the  more  rapidly  the  water  passes  through  the  membrane. 
The  solutions  in  the  root-hairs  are  more  dense  than  the 
soil  solutions,  hence  more  water  passes  into  the  root  than 
passes  out  into  the  soil.  If  extremely  strong  fertilizer  is 
used,  the  soil  solution  may  be  so  concentrated  as  to.  cause 
more  water  to  leave  the  root  than  enters  it.  In  this  case, 
the  plant  will  wilt  and  may  be  killed.  An  excess  of  any 
plant  food  in  solution  may  thus  kill  plants.  The  alkali 
soils  of  arid  regions  often  contain  so  much  soluble  material 
as  to  prevent  the  growth  of  plants. 

Some  of  the  cell  sap  does  pass  from  the  roots  to  the  soil. 
This  cell-sap  is  slightly  acid,  so  it  helps  to  make  more 
of  the  material  in  the  soil  soluble.  The  acidity  of  a  root 
may  be  easily  shown  by  pressing  the  root  of  a  sprouting 
seed  against  blue  litmus  paper. 

If  a  plant  w^ere  a  dead  thing,  the  solution  in  the  cells 
would  eventually  become  of  the  same  density  as  the  soil 
solution,  so  that  the  moisture  would  pass  out  of  the  roots 
as  rapidly  as  it  passed  into  them.  But  the  plant  cells  are 
alive.  The  leaves  are  constantly  using  such  of  the  materials 
in  the  cell-sap  as  are  needed  for  the  manufacture  of  plant 
tissues.    They  remove  the  surplus  water  by  transpiration. 

The  transpiration  keeps  the  cell-sap  of  the  leaves  and 
upper  parts  of  the  plant  densest,  so  that  the  balance 
of  osmotic  movement  is  always  upward. 

The  plant  foods  are  not  taken  up  as  elements,  but  in 
compounds.  Nitrogen  constitutes  four-fifths  of  the  at- 
mosphere, but  it  is  in  the  form  of  an  element.  No  plant 
can  take  up  nitrogen  except  when  it  is  combined  with 
other  elements.  It  is  taken  up  in  soil  solutions  in  the 
form  of  nitrates.    No  solid  particles  can  be  taken  up  by 


PLANT   FOOD 


67 


the  roots.    Only  soluble  materials  can  pass  through  mem- 
branes by  osmosis. 

64.  Importance  of  Water.  Water  not  only  constitutes 
about  nine-tenths  of  the  growing  plant,  but  it  acts  as  the 
carrier  of  all  the  other  food  materials  except  the  carbon. 

The  enormous  amount  of  water  that  passes  through  a 
plant  in  bringing  the  food  from  the  soil  was  determined 
in  Wisconsin  by  King,  and  is  shown  in  the  following 
table: 

Amount  of  Water  Lost  by  Transpiration  and  Evaporation  fo« 
Each  Ton  of  Dry  Matter  in  the  Crop 

Corn 310  tons,  equal  to  2.64  inches  rainfall 

Red  clover 453  tons,  equal  to  4.03  inches  rainfall 

Barley 393  tons,  equal  to  3.43  inches  rainfall 

Oats 522  tons,  equal  to  4.76  inches  rainfall 

Potatoes 423  tons,  equal  to  3.73  inches  rainfall 

In  producing  a  ton  of  clover  hay,  which  is  85  per  cent 
dry  matter,  385  tons  of  water  are  lost  by  transpiration 
and  evaporation.  It  will  be  seen  that  oats  require  more 
water  than  any  other 
crop,  a  fact  that  is 
observed  by  farmers. 

65.  How  the  Plant 
Gets  Its  Food  from  the 
Air.  Over  half  the 
dry  matter  of  a  plant 
is  carbon.  The  small 
amount  of   carbon  di- 


FiG.  40.  Section  of  a  leaf  showing  the 
breathing  pores  and  intercellular  spaces.  The 
small  dots  are  chlorophyll  grains. 


oxid  in  the  air,  about  three  parts  in  ten  thousand,  fur- 
nishes all  the  carbon.  With  the  air,  the  carbon  dioxid 
passes  into  the  intercellular  spaces  through  the  breathing 
pores,  stomata,  of  the  leaves.    (Fig.  40.)    When  it  is  in 


68  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

the  intercellular  spaces,  it  is  still  outside  the  cells  where 
the  food  is  manufactured.  It  passes  through  the  cell- 
walls  by  osmosis.  Within  the  leaf  cells  the  carbon  is  re- 
moved and  united  with  the  nutrients  brought  up  by  the 
roots  to  form  starch  and  other  plant  foods.  The  surplus 
oxygen  passes  back  into  the  intercellular  spaces  by  osmosis, 
and  thence  through  the  breathing  pores  to  the  air. 

THE   MANUFACTURE   OF   FOOD   MATERIALS 

66.  Carbohydrates.  The  most  abundant  food  material 
that  is  built  up  by  the  plant  is  starch.  This  is  a  compound 
of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen  (CgH^QO^).  Starch  is 
formed  only  in  sunlight,  and  then  only  by  green  plants. 
The  chlorophyll  plays  an  important  part  in  its  manufacture. 

Starch  is  insoluble,  and  hence  cannot  move  through  the 
cell  walls.  But  the  plant  can  readily  change  it  to  sugar 
and  other  soluble  substances,  so  that  it  can  be  transferred. 
It  can  then  be  reconverted  into  starch.  These  changes 
are  independent  of  light.  The  starch  formed  in  potato 
leaves  can  be  changed  to  sugar,  transferred  to  the  tubers 
below  ground,  and  there  reconverted  into  starch.  When  these 
tubers  sprout  the  next  year,  the  starch  is  again  changed 
to  soluble  compounds.  All  these  compounds  are  carbo- 
hydrates. Chemically,  they  are  distinguished  from  other 
compounds  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  in  that  they 
contain  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  atoms  in  the  proportion 
of  two  to  one, — that  is  the  proportion  of  water  (HgO). 
This  is  why  they  are  called  hydrates.  Some  of  the  other 
important  foods  that  plants  form  are  fats  and  protein. 

67.  Fats.   The  fats  differ  from  starch  and  sugar  iu  hav- 


PLANT   FOOD  69 

ing  a  higher  percentage  of  carbon.  They  are  more  con- 
centrated than  starch.  When  burned,  one  pound  of  fat 
produces  about  two  and  one-fourth  times  as  much  heat 
as  is  produced  by  a  pound  of  starch  or  sugar.  One  pound 
of  fat  is  equal  to  about  two  and  one-fourth  pounds  of 
starch  or  sugar  as  a  food  for  plants  or  animals. 

68.  Protein  is  a  term  used  to  cover  a  large  number  of 
different  compound?.  They  all  contain  nitrogen.  They 
may  be  more  properly  called  nitrogenous  compounds. 
They  are  chiefly  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen 
and  nitrogen.  Most  of  them  contain  phosphorus,  sulfur 
and  other  elements. 

69.  Plants  the  Only  Source  of  These  Foods.  None  of 
these  compounds  can  be  made  in  any  way  except  by  plants. 
A  chemist  cannot  get  the  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
to  unite,  so  as  to  form  starch.  Therefore,  all  animal  life 
depends  on  plant  life. 

70.  Stored  Food.  The  food  that  is  stored  in  a  plant  is 
nearly  always  in  insoluble  compounds,  such  as  starch, 
oils,  insoluble  forms  of  protein.  In  this  form  it  is  less 
easily  damaged. 

71.  Periods  in  the  Life  of  a  Plant.  There  are  two  rather 
distinct  periods  in  the  life  of  a  plant:  (1)  The  period  of 
growth  and  formation  of  food;  (2)  the  period  of  repro- 
duction. 

These  stages  are  very  marked  in  some  plants,  as 
turnips,  that  grow  and  store  up  food  during  one  season, 
and  that  transfer  the  food  to  the  seeds  during  the  next 
season,  and  then  die. 

With  trees  the  stages  are  less  marked.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  among  fruit-growers  that  a  good  growth  for 


70  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

the  formation  and  development  of  buds  is  necessary  for 
a  crop  the  following  year.    We  grow  much  of  the  apple 
crop  the  year  before  we  pick  it.    Food  is  stored  in  the 
twigs,  so  that  the  blossoms  and  fruit  can  have  an  avail- 
able supply  for  growth  in  the  following  season. 

One  of  the  sure  ways  to  kill  any  weed  is  to  keep  it  cut 
off,  so  that  it  cannot  have  green  leaves  for  starch  forma- 
tion. It  will  eventually  exhaust  the  stored  food  in  the 
roots  and  starve  to  death. 

The  asparagus  crop  is  grown  from  food  that  was  stored 
in  the  roots  the  preceding  year.  Many  growers  of  aspara- 
gus fertilize  the  crop  in  the  spring,  thinking  that  it  helps 
that  year's  crop.  But,  since  the  plant  is  not  allowed  to 
produce  enough  green  top  to  prepare  food,  the  fertihzer 
can  bring  no  good  results  the  year  that  it  is  applied. 
Field  experiments  have  verified  this  conclusion.  An 
asparagus  bed  was  divided  into  two  plots  of  one-half 
acre  each.  One-half  was  fertilized  in  the  early  spring 
and  one-half  was  not.  The  fertilized  area  yielded  460 
pounds,  and  the  unfertilized  448.^  But,  when  the  crop 
of  the  following  year  was  measured,  the  fertilizer  showed 
a  marked  result.  The  time  to  fertilize  the  asparagus  crop 
is  when  cutting  ceases,  unless  some  material  is  used  that 
needs  time  to  decay.  The  crop  is  grown  and  stored  in 
the  roots  the  year  before  we  harvest  it. 

Many  plants  are  killed  or  seriously  weakened  by  the 
formation  of  seed.  Rye  is  sometimes  pastured  during  the 
first  summer,  and  allowed  to  go  to  seed  during  the  second 
year.  But,  if  allowed  to  form  seed  the  first  year,  it  dies 
as  the  seed  ripens.   Red  clover  is  much  weakened  by  form- 

iDelaware  Report  1902,  p.  90. 


PLANT   FOOD  71 

ing  seed.  The  stand  of  clover  is  much  better  maintained 
if  the  crop  is  cut  for  hay  before  the  seed  has  ripened,  unless 
the  stand  is  kept  up  by  the  growth  of  new  plants  from  seed 
that  scatters  in  the  field. 

72.  Effect  of  the  Time  of  Harvesting  on  Composition. 
Annual  plants  take  up  nearly  all  their  nitrogen  and  min- 
eral matter  in  their  early  stages  of  growth.  But  the  starch 
and  other  organic  compounds  are  more  largely  accumu- 
lated in  the  later  stages.  This  is  one  reason  why  plants 
require  so  much  available  food  in  the  soil  during  the  early 
stages  of  growth.     (See  Fig.  90.) 

When  spring  wheat  is  half  grown,  it  contains  about  85 
per  cent  of  the  total  nitrogen  that  is  required  for  the  crop, 
and  75  per  cent  of  the  total  mineral  matter,  but  it  con- 
tains only  40  per  cent  of  the  organic  compounds. 

When  clover  is  in  full  bloom,  it  contains  as  much  dry 
matter  as  when  ripe,  and  more  nitrogen  and  mineral  ele- 
ments. Slight  amounts  of  these  are  returned  to  the  soil 
in  the  later  stages.^ 

Any  condition  that  checks  the  growth  of  plants  before 
maturity  will,  therefore,  affect  the  composition  of  the  crop. 
If  dry  weather  or  a  lack  of  food  supply  check  the  growth 
of  wheat,  it  will  have  a  higher  percentage  of  nitrogen  and 
a  lower  percentage  of  starch  than  if  it  matured  naturally. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  the  soil  about  a  tree  lifted? 

2.  How  many  tons  of  com,  grain  and  stalks,  is  an  average  crop 
per  acre  in  your  community?  Assuming  the  Wisconsin  figures  to  apply, 
how  many  tons  of  water  would  be  evaporated  from  the  com  leaves 
on  an  acre? 

iH.  Snyder,  Chemistry  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life.    Chapter  26. 


72 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


3.  Account  for  the  sweet  taste  of  germinating  corn. 

4.  What  difference  in  composition  would  you  expect  to  find  between 
wheat  of  the  semi-arid  regions  and  of  the  humid  regions?    Why? 

6.  Which  most  frequently  limits  the  size  of  the  crop  in  your  com- 
munity, water  or  one  of  the  other  plant  foods? 

7.  Which  would  be  better  for  feed,  the  straw  of  oats  cut  when 
somewhat  green  or  when  ripe?  Why? 

8.  Following  a  dew,  a  wilted  plant  often  "freshens."    Why? 

9.  Why  should  orchards  be  well  cared  for  in  the  years  when  no  crops 
are  borne? 

10.  What  allowance  is  made  for  water  in  buying  ear  corn  in  the 
early  winter? 

11.  Why  do  stored  potatoes  shrink  so  much  more  than  grain? 

12.  Explain  the  comparative  effect   of  plants  and  animals  on  the 
amount  of  carbon  dioxid  in  the  air. 

13.  Of  two  seeds  the  same  size,  one  an  oily  seed  and  one  a  starchy 
seed,  which  would  probably  grow  more  rapidly?  Why? 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 


24.   The  Percentages  of  Water,  Dry  Matter  and  Ash  in  Plants. 

Materials. — Balances  weighing  to  centigrams,  crucible  or  other 
small  dish  that  will  stand  heating,  corn  grain,  potatoes,  some  growing 
plant. 

Place  each  one  in  a  weighed  dish,  heat  a  little  above  the  boiling 
temperature  for  one  hour  or  more.  If  the  school  has  a  drying  oven, 
run  it  at  110°  C.  Weigh  again,  then  bum  by  heating  very  hot  and* 
weigh.   Record  the  results  as  follows: 


Weight  of  dish    , 

Weight  of  dish  and  specimen 

Weight  of  specimens 

Weight  of  dried  specimens.  . 

Per  cent  of  water 

Per  cent  of  dry  matter    .... 
Weight  of  dish  and  ash  .... 

Weight  of  ash 

Per  cent  of  ash 


LABORATORY   EXERCISES  73 

26.   Osmosis. 

Materials. — Potato,  thistle  tube,  parchment  paper,  bladder,  salt. 
Perform  the  experiment  described  on  page  65. 

26.  Root-Hairs. 

Materials. — Compound  microscope,  roots  of  oats,  clover  or  other 
seeds  germinated  between  blotters.    (Page  64.) 

Examine  the  root-hairs  and  make  drawings  of  them.  How  many 
celled  are  they?  How  do  they  differ  from  roots? 

27.  Stored  Food  in  Twigs. 

During  the  winter  collect  some  branches  of  trees  two  or  three  feet 
long.  Place  them  in  water,  change  the  water  occasionally.  Note  how 
much  growth  takes  place.  Where  did  the  food  material  come  from? 
What  relation  has  this  to  orchard  management? 

28.  Tests  for  Proteids. 

Materials. — Nitric  acid,  ammonia,  seeds. 

All  proteids  (and  a  few  other  substances)  are  turned  yellow  by 
nitric  acid.  This  is  why  one's  fingers  are  made  yellow  when  working 
with  nitric  acid  in  the  laboratory.  This  yellow  color  becomes  deeper 
when  moistened  with  ammonia. 

Cut  several  cross  sections  of  corn,  beans  and  other  seeds.  Make 
the  protein  tests.  Which  part  of  the  kernel  of  corn  contains  the  most 
protein?   Do  beans  or  corn  appear  to  contain  the  larger  amount? 

29.  Tests  for  Starch. 

Materials. — lodin  solution,  seeds. 

Test  corn,  beans  and  other  seeds  for  starch.  Which  part  of  the 
kernel  of  com  contains  most  starch? 

30.  Microscopic  Examination  of  Starch. 

Materials. — Compound  microscope,  iodin  solution,  corn,  potatoes, 

etc. 

Examine  sections  of  com  and  potatoes.    (X  about  500.) 

Make  drawings  of  the  starch  grains.    Compare  the  shapes  and  sizes 

from  different  plants.   Notice  how  the  grains  are  arranged  in  the  cells. 

Add  a  drop  ot   iodin  solution  to  the  different  slides  and  note   the 

effect. 


74  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

31.   Starch  in  Leaves  at  Different  Times. 

Collect  leaves  of  plants  in  early  spring  and  in  late  fall,  preserve 
in  alcohol.  Also  collect  leaves  at  daybreak  and  in  the  afternoon,  and 
preserve.    Test  each  for  starch.    Explain  the  results. 


COLLATERAL  READING 

Chemistry  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life,  by  Harry  Snyder. 

Physics  of  Agriculture,  by  F.  H.  King. 

Fertilizers,  by  E.  B.  Voorhees. 

Elementary  Exercises  in  Agriculture.  Office  of  Experiment  Sta 
tions.  Bulletin  No.  186,  pp.  17-26. 

A  Secondary  Course  in  Agronomy.  Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 
Circular  No.  77,  pp.  25-26. 


CHAPTER   V 

THE  SOIL 

"Fill  a  flower-pot  with  soft,  dark  earth  and  mold  from  the  border 
of  the  wood,  and  carry  it  to  the  student  of  entomology  and  see  if  he 
can  name  one-half  of  the  living  forms  of  this  little  kingdom  of  life;  or 
hand  it  to  the  botanist,  well  trained  in  the  lower  orders  of  plants,  and 
see  how  many  of  the  living  forms  which  these  few  handfuls  of  dirt 
contain  he  can  classify.  Present  this  miniature  farm  to  the  chemist 
and  the  physicist,  and  let  them  puzzle  over  it.  Call  in  the  farmer,  and 
ask  him  what  plants  will  thrive  best  in  it;  or  keep  the  soil  warm  and 
moist  for  a  time,  and  have  the  gardener  say  of  the  tiny  plants  that 
appear  as  by  magic,  which  are  good  and  which  are  bad.  Mark  what 
all  these  experts  have  said,  and  call  in  the  orchardist  to  tell  you  how 
to  change  dead,  lifeless,  despised  earth  into  fruit;  ask  the  physiologist 
to  explain  how  sodden  earth  is  transformed  into  nerve  and  brain."  ^ 

73.  What  Soil  Is.  Many  persons  look  upon  soil  as  ''dirt" 
— something  to  be  avoided.  It  is  almost  invariably  thought 
of  as  a  dead  thing;  but  it  is  teeming  with  life,  and  is  full 
of  activities  of  the  most  complex  and  interesting  kinds. 

The  almost  universal  idea  of  soil  is  that  it  is  a  collec- 
tion of  small  particles  of  rock  that  have  been  made  fine 
by  the  process  of  weathering.  Many  books  give  this  as 
the  origin  of  soil.  No  crop  could  grow  on  a  soil  composed 
entirely  of  rock  particles.  An  agricultural  soil  is  made 
up  of: 

(1)  Small  rock  particles. 

(2)  Soil  water. 

(3)  Soil  air. 

iRoberts'  "The  Fertility  of  the  Land,"  p.  1. 
(75) 


76  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

(4)  Decaying  organic  matter.-^ 

(5)  Living  organisms. 

There  are  very  few  soils  that  are  capable  of  producing 
crops  that  do  not  have  all  these  constituents.  About  the 
only  exception  is  the  class  of  soils  that  do  not  contain 
rock  fragments.  Muck  contains  little  such  material.  Nearly 
all  of  its  solid  matter  is  made  up  of  organic  material.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  soils  for  growing  celery^ 
onions,  and  some  other  crops. 

A  soil  that  is  very  deficient  in  water,  air,  living  organ- 
isms, or  decaying  organic  matter,  will  not  produce  good 
crops. 

ROCK   PARTICLES 

74.  Amounts  of  Mineral  Matter.  The  rock  particles 
in  most  soils  make  up  65  to  95  per  cent  of  the  weight.  The 
organic  matter  usually  constitutes  2  to  5  per  cent.  Most 
of  the  remaining  weight  is  water.  The  mineral  matter 
furnishes  the  solid  food.  It  also  acts  as  a  reservoir  for 
holding  the  water.  In  the  study  of  geography,  we  have 
learned  how  the  particles  of  rock  have  become  so  small. 
The  size  of  the  particles  has  very  much  to  do  with  the 
value  of  the  land. 

75.  How  the  Size  of  Particles  is  Determined.  If  a  soil 
is  thoroughly  shaken  up  with  water  and  then  allowed 
to  settle  a  few  minutes,  the  larger  particles  will  be  sepa- 
rated out.  The  rily  water  can  be  poured  off  and  allowed 
to  settle  for  a  longer  period,  when  the  next  larger  particles 
will  have  settled  to  the  bottom.   If  the  rily  water  is  again 

'Organic  matter  is  any  material  that  is,  or  once  was,  an  organism,  or 
living  thing,  such  as  coal,  wood,  sugar,  straw,  manure,  etc. 


THE  SOIL 


77 


Fine 

travel 
•3% 


Coarse         Medium  Fine 

Band  sand  sand 

3.3  %  4.3  %  37.8  %  21.5  % 

Fig.  41.    Composition  of  a  fine  sandy  loam 


poured  off,  we  shall  have  the  soil  separated  into  three  sizes 
of  particles.  Any  number  of  divisions  can  be  made  in  this 
manner.^ 

The  finest  soil  particles  are  called  clay,  the  next  small- 
est silt.  The  larger  particles  are  different  grades  of  sand 
and  gravel.  The  following  table  shows  the  mechanical 
analyses  of  three  important  soil  types  as  separated  by 
the  Bureau  of  Soils: 

■•^The  common  method  of  making  the  separation  is  to  put  the  samples 
of  soil  in  bottles  of  water,  and  shake  for  a  day  in  a  shaking  machine.  This 
separates  the  particles  that  are  stuck  together,  A  centrifugal  machine  is 
used  to  aid  in  making  the  separations,  as  it  is  more  rapid  than  waiting  for 
the  particles  to  settle.  The  material  is  usually  separated  into  three  grades 
by  means  of  water.    The  sands  are  further  separated  by  means  of  sieves. 


Coarse  Medium  Fine  Very  fine  Silt 

sand  sand  sand  sand  58.2% 

0.3%  0.4%  1.5%  3.1% 

Fig.  42.    Composition  of  a  clay  loam 


78  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Mechanical  Analyses  of  Three  Important  Soil  Types  ^ 


Diameter  of 
Particles 

Norfolk  Sand 

Miami  Silt 
Loam 

Wabash  Clay 

Soil 

Subsoil 

Soil 

Subsoil 

Soil     Subsoil 
1 

Fine  gravel  . .  . 
Coarse  sand  . .  . 
Medium  sand.  . 

Fine  sand 

Very  fine  sand.. 
Silt 

mm. 
2-1 

1-0.5 

0.5-0.25 

0.25-0.10 

0.10-0.05 

0.05-0.005 

0.005-0 

% 

3 

15 

22 

38 

10 

8 

4 

% 

3 

16 

21 

37 

9 

8 

5 

% 
0 

1 

1 

2 

8 

73 

15 

% 
0 

71 
19 

% 
0 

1 

1 

3 

7 
49 
37 

% 
0 
0 

1 

3 

18 

48 

Clay 

40 

The  Norfolk  sand  is  one  of  the  leading  truck  soils  of 
the  Atlantic  coast.  A  large  part  of  the  vegetables  for 
eastern  cities  are  grown  on  this  soil.  The  Miami  silt  loam 
is  one  of  the  leading  types  of  soil  in  the  ''corn  belt"  of 
the  Central  West.  The  Wabash  clay  occurs  along  many  of 
the  river  bottoms.  It  is  used  for  corn,  oats,  cotton,  and 
ha5^  Compare  the  analyses  of  these  three  soils  and  the 
crops  grown. 

76.  How  Soils  Are  Named.  The  soils  that  contain  a 
large  proportion  of  the  finest  particles  are  called  clay. 
At  the  other  extreme  we  have  sands  and  gravels.  Soils 
that  are  intermediate  in  texture  are  called  loams.  Those 
with  a  large  proportion  of  silt  particles,  and  not  too  much 
clay,  are  called  silt-loams.  These  words  are  joined  to  de- 
scribe intermediate  types.  There  are  gravelly  loams, 
sandy  loams,  fine  sandy  loams,  clay  loams,  etc.  Since 
many  soils  as  thus  named  are  very  different  in  other 
respects,  the  Bureau  of  Soils  prefixes   another  name  to 

iSoil  Survey  Field  Book,  1906.   Bureau  of  Soils. 


THE   SOIL  79 

distinguish  them.  These  names  are  usually  names  of 
towns  near  which  the  soils  are  first  mapped.^ 

The  local  names  used  in  any  community  are  often 
misleading.  In  a  region  where  nearly  all  the  soils  are 
sandy,  a  loam  soil  is  usually  called  a  clay;  while,  in  regions 
where  most  of  the  soils  are  heavy  clays,  the  same  loam 
is  likely  to  be  called  sandy. 

Soils  are  also  named  in  many  other  ways.  Glacial  soils 
are  those  that  were  formed  as  a  result  of  glcxciation,  or  the 
passage  of  the  great  ice  sheet  that  once  covered  part  of 
America.  They  occur  in  northern  and  eastern  United 
States. 

Arid  soils  are  those  that  do  not  receive  a  sufficient 
amount  of  rainfall  to  produce  regular  crops  without  irri- 
gation. They  occur  in  the  western  half  of  the  United 
States.  Humid  soils  are  those  that  receive  sufficient 
rainfall  to  produce  crops. 

77.  Importance  of  the  Size  of  Soil  Particles.  The  size 
of  the  soil  particles  influences  the  water-holding  power 
of  the  soil,  the  amount  of  food  that  can  be  dissolved  for 
plant  use,  the  ease  of  movement  of  air  and  water,  the 
growth  of  organisms  in  the  soil,  and  the  crop-producing 
power. 

78.  Relation  of  Size  of  Particles  to  Water.  The  rock 
particles  of  the  soil  can  hold  water  on  their  surfaces  only, 
hence  the  water-holding  power  of  the  soil  increases  when 
the  surface  area  of  the  particles  is  increased. 

Dip  a  pebble  in  water  and  a  film  of  water  will  remam 
on  it  when  it  is  removed.  Wipe  the  pebble  and  the  water 
will  be  gone,  because  no  water  has  soaked  into  it.    If  such 

^Soil  maps  are  based  largely  on  the  size  of  the  particles,  but  origin, 
topography,  agricultural  value,  and  other  factors,  are  considered. 


80  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

a  pebble  is  broken  in  two,  it  will  have  more  surface  area. 
It  can  now  hold  more  water.  The  finer  the  material  is 
broken,  the  more  surface  there  will  be,  and  the  more  water 
it  will  hold. 

The  finest  soil  particles  are  extremely  small — less  than 
four  hundred-thousandths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  total 
surface  area  in  a  cubic  foot  of  such  material  would  be  very 
great.  Such  fine  particles  do  not  always  act  as  individ- 
uals in  holding  water,  some  of  the  particles  usually  stick 
together.  A  cubic  foot  of  soil  grains  having  a  diameter 
of  one -thousandth  of  an  inch  (coarse  silt)  would  have 
a  surface  area  of  37,700  square  feet.  Four  feet  in  depth 
of  such  a  soil  would  have  a  water-holding  surface  of  not 
less  than  3.4  acres  for  each  column  of  soil  with  one  square 
foot  of  surface  area.^ 

The  water  capacity  of  a  soil  is  the  amount  of  water 
that  it  will  hold  when  all  the  free  water  is  allowed  to 
drain  out.  Some  clay  soils  will  retain  about  40  per  cent 
of  water,  that  is,  100  pounds  of  soil  may  retain  40  pounds 
of  water.  A  cubic  foot  of  clay  weighs  about  80  pounds 
and  could,  therefore,  hold  about  32  pounds  of  water. 
Sandy  soils  may  have  a  water  capacity  as  low  as  5  per 
cent. 

Plants  cannot  remove  all  the  water  from  a  soil.  They 
die  for  lack  of  water  long  before  the  soil  is  absolutely  dry. 
They  can  use  a  larger  proportion  of  the  water  from  a  sandy 
soil  than  from  a  clay.  King  found  that  in  a  sandy  soil 
whose  water  capacity  was  18  per  cent,  corn  was  able  to 
reduce  the  water  to  4.17  per  cent.  In  a  clay  soil  whose 
capacity  was  26  per  cent,  it  succeeded  in  using  the  water 

iKing,  The  Soil,  p.  73. 


THE  SOIL  81 

ddwn  to  11.79  per  cent.^  In  this  case,  the  sandy  soil 
had  actually  been  able  to  furnish  more  water  for  the 
growth  of  corn  than  had  the  clay. 

79.  Relation  of  Size  of  Particles  to  Plant  Food.  The 
rock  particles  are  very  slowly  soluble.  Soil  water  can  act 
on  the  surface  of  the  particles  only.  Since  smaller  par- 
ticles have  more  surface  for  a  given  volume  of  soil,  they 
are  able  to  furnish  plant  food  more  rapidly.  The  finer 
soils  are  usually  more  fertile,  but  are  less  easily  managed. 

80.  Relation  of  the  Size  of  Soil  Particles  to  Air.  About 
half  the  volume  of  a  dry  soil  is  air;  that  is,  a  cubic  foot 
of  such  soil  contains  about  half  a  cubic  foot  of  air.  The 
small  particles  of  which  a  clay  is  composed  do  not  pack 
so  closely  as  do  the  larger  sand  particles,  because  they  are 
lighter.  Therefore,  there  is  more  pore  space  in  clay  than 
in  sand.  But  the  spaces  in  a  sandy  soil  are  larger,  so  that 
the  air  moves  more  freely;  hence,  such  a  soil  is  better 
aerated. 

81.  Size  of  Particles  in  Relation  to  Temperature.    The 
temperature  of  the  soil  is  influenced  by  its  color,  topog- 
raphy,   humus    content,   and    by  several    other    factors 
But  the  chief  factor  is  the  water  capacity. 

It  requires  about  20  heat  units  to  raise  the  tempera- 
ture of  100  pounds  of  dry  soil  1°  Fahr.  To  raise  the  tem- 
perature of  the  same  weight  of  water  1°  Fahr.  requires 
100  heat  units.  But  the  effect  of  water  is  most  striking 
when  it  evaporates.  To  evaporate  100  pounds  of  water 
requires  966.6  heat  units.  This  explains  why  wet  soils 
are  always  cold  soils.  Clay  soils  are  cold  chiefly  because 
of  the  large  amount  of  water  that  evaporates  from  them. 

iKing,  TheSoil,  p.  161. 
F 


82  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

King  took  the  temperature  of  a  well-drained,  sandy  loiam 
and  of  a  black  marsh  soil  on  five  successive  days,  and 
found  the  sandy  soil  to  average  7.5°  Fahr.  warmer, — a 
difference  sufficient  to  have  a  very  decided  effect  on  crops. 
It  is  easy  to  see  why  gardeners  desire  a  sandy  soil  for 
early  truck  crops.  Few  crops  begin  growth  until  the  soil 
has  a  temperature  of  45°  to  50°  Fahr.  The  best  growth 
does  not  usually  take  place  until  the  temperature  is  about 
70°  Fahr.  Different  crops  differ  much  in  the  heat  required. 
Some,  like  grasses,  oats,  onions,  peas,  will  grow  before 
the  soil  is  warm  enough  for  corn,  beans,  cucumbers,  etc. 

82.  Size  of  Soil  Particles  and  Crop  Adaptation.  The 
size  of  soil  particles  affects  all  the  soil  activities,  and  con- 
sequently must  affect  the  crops  that  grow  on  the  soils. 
Timothy  will  thrive  on  a  heavy,  clay  soil  on  which 
apples,  corn,  and  potatoes  will  give  very  poor  returns. 
The  sandy  soils  that  are  best  for  market-garden  crops 
will  raise  very  little  timothy  or  wheat.  Whitney  states 
that  a  gram  of  soil  contains  two  to  twenty  billion  soil 
particles.  He  gives  the  following  as  the  number  of  soil 
particles  per  gram  of  soils  adapted  to  different  crops:     * 

Early  truck 1,955,000,000 

Truck  and  small  fruit 3,955,000,000 

Tobacco 6,786,000,000 

Wheat 10,228.000,000 

Grass  and  wheat 14,735,000,000 

No  person  can  comprehend  such  figures  as  these,  but 
the  comparison  is  the  valuable  point.  The  table  shows 
how  much  coarser  the  truck  soils  are  than  the  wheat 
soils.    (See,  also,  page  78.) 

83.  Relation  of  Labor  and  Soil.  Even  if  the  clay  soils 
would  produce  good  truck  crops,  they  would  not  be  de- 


THE   SOIL 


83 


sirable  for  truck-growers,  because  they  are  so  difficult 
to  work.  For  any  crop  that  requires  so  much  labor,  one 
should  have  a  soil  that  is  easy  to  work. 

Sandy  soils  and  other  well-drained  soils  are  not  only 
easier  to  till,  but  the  number  of  days  on  which  they  can 
be  worked  is  much  greater.  Such  soils  can  be  tilled  early 
in  the  spring  and  can  be  tilled  quickly  after  rains.  If  one 
has  a  clay  soil,  he  must  spend  much  more  time  waiting 
for  it  to  dry  out.  Hence,  he  cannot  farm  so  large  an  area. 
For  many  kinds  of  farming,  the  ease  with  which  soil  may 
be  tilled  is  of  more  importance  than  its  fertility. 

84.  The  Best  Soils.  The  great  advantages  of  clay  soils 
are  that  they  usually  retain  their  fertility  well,  and  will 
produce  good  grass.  For 
general  farm  purposes, 
the  medium-  textured 
soils,  sandy  loams,  loams 
and  silt  loams,  are  to 
be  preferred.  They  are 
fairly  easy  to  work  and 
are  adapted  to  a  wide 
range  of  crops.  For  per- 
manent pastures  and 
meadows,  the  clay  soils 
are  usually  preferable. 

85.  Flocculation. 
When  a  silt  or  clay  soil 
is.  in  good  condition, 
many  of  the  particles  are  united  into  compound  par- 
ticles. Such  a  soil  is  flocculated.  Good  management  of 
such    a    soil    consists   very   largely   in    maintaining    this 


Fig.  43.  A  clay  loam  soil  as  it  appeared 
in  the  spring  after  having  been  worked  too 
fine  in  the  fall.    Same  soil  as  Fig.  42. 


84  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

granulated  condition.  If  such  a  soil  is  worked  while  wet, 
and  if  it  then  dries,  it  will  be  greatly  injured,  sometimes 
so  much  as  to  damage  the  crops  for  several  years. 
Working  a  clay  soil  when  wet  makes  ''bricks"  of  it.  The 
crust  that  is  formed  on  the  surface  of  soil  after  rains  is 
due  to  the  breaking  down  of  compound  particles. 

If  such  a  soil  is  too  finely  pulverized,  it  ''runs  together" 
and  bakes  because  the  gianules  have  been  broken  up.  (See 
Fig.   43.) 

The  relative  fineness  of  the  soil  is  called  its  texture, 
just  as  the  word  is  used  in  speaking  of  the  texture  of  cloth. 
If  a  soil  is  composed  of  very  small  particles  that  are  floc- 
culated, it  may  yet  be  of  a  coarse  structure.  Structure 
refers  to  the  arrangement  of  soil  particles.  If  the  small 
particles  are  united,  it  is  possible  to  have  a  soil  of  fine  tex- 
ture and  coarse  structure. 

SOIL  WATER 

86.  Importance  of  Soil  Water.  In  an  agricultural 
sense,  the  most  important  use  of  soil  is  to  act  as  a  store- 
house for  water.  The  productiveness  of  a  soil  is  Umited 
by  the  amount  of  water  that  the  soil  can  hold,  and  by  the 
extent  to  which  growing  crops  are  able  to  remove  the 
water.  The  soil  water  is  important,  not  only  because  it 
is  the  chief  plant  food,  but  because  it  acts  as  a  carrier  of 
all  the  other  plant  foods  that  come  from  the  soil  (page 
66). 

Soil  water  is  very  different  from  rain  water.  It  con- 
tains all  the  plant  foods  in  solution.  The  solution  is  very 
dilute,  but  plants  use  a  large  amount  of  it.    Plants  will 


SOIL   WATER  85 

grow  in   well-water  or  water  from   a  tile   drain,  if  it  is 
renewed  often  enough.    Such  water  is  free  soil  water. 

87.  Movement  of  Water  in  Soil.  The  chief  ways  in 
which  water  exists  in  the  soil  are  as  film  water  and  as 
free  water.  The  particles  can  hold  a  certain  amount  of 
water  on  their  surfaces,  just  as  one's  hands  remain  wet 
when  removed  from  water.  Only  a  limited  amount  can 
be  held  in  this  way.  If  too  much  water  is  present,  it  will 
drop  off.  If  more  water  is  present  in  the  soil  than  can  be 
held  as  film  moisture,  it  will  fill  the  pore  spaces  between 
the  particles.  If  there  is  an  outlet,  the  free  water  will 
drain  away  and  leave  the  film  or  capillary  water. 

88.  Conservation  of  Moisture.  The  free  water  moves 
downward  by  gravity.  The  capillary  water  can  move  in 
any  direction,  because  the  force  of  adhesion  between 
the  soil  particles  and  the  water  is  strong  enough  to  lift 
water,  just  as  oil  is  hfted  in  a  lamp- wick.  After  a  heavy 
rain  the  soil  may  be  filled  with  water.  Gradually  the 
free  water  drains  away  and  leaves  capillary  water  only. 
The  surface  soil  loses  some  of  its  water  by  evaporation. 
This  leaves  it  drier  than  the  soil  below.  Some  of  the  water 
of  the  lower  layer  of  soil  is  then  drawn  up  by  capillarity 
to  take  its  place,  just  as  more  oil  is  drawn  up  in  the  lamp- 
wick  when  that  at  the  end  of  the  wick  is  removed  by  burn- 
ing. In  this  way  the  water  may  be  removed  from  the  soil 
very  rapidly,  particularly  when  the  weather  is  dry,  warm 
and  windy. ^ 

If  there  is  not  an  abundance  of  rainfall,  it  is  desirable 
to  stop  this  movement  of  water  to  the  surface  to  be  evap- 

1  Water  also  evaporates  within  the  soil  into  the  soil  air.  There  is  a 
constant  movement  of  this  air  in  and  out  of  the  soil,  so  that  this  aids  in 
drying  a  soil. 


86 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 


orated.  Any  loose  mulch,  like  straw,  on  the  surface  of 
the  soil  will  accomplish  this  purpose.  The  capillary  water 
moves  very  slowly  through  dry  soil,  so  that  one  of  the 


'"^"J^^S^^^- 


:^- 


Fig.  44.    Footprints  kept  moist  and  dark-colored  by  the  rise  of 
capillary  water 

best  methods  for  preventing  the  evaporation  is  to  form 
a  dust  mulch  on  the  surface.  One  of  the  great  benefits 
of  cultivation  is  the  formation  of  this  dust  mulch.  When 
possible,  the  soil  should  be  cultivated  after  every  rain  as 
soon  as  it  is  in  proper  condition  for  working.  This  culti- 
vation will  break  up  the  crust,  break  the  capillary  connec- 
tion, and  prevent  much  of  the  evaporation.  At  the  same 
time  it  leaves  the  soil  in  a  loose  condition,  ready  for  the 
absorption  of  the  next  rain. 

When  a  moist  soil  is  stirred,  evaporation  will  first  be 
increased,  but  as  the  loose  soil  becomes  dry  it  acts  as  a 


Fig.  45.    A  foot  print.   The  particles  are  kept  closer  together  and  therefore 
hasten  the  rise  of  water 

mulch  to  check  evaporation.    Hence,  if  rains  are  frequent, 
cultivation  may  keep  the  soil  drier. 

In  most  of  the  United  States,  the  rainfall  during  the 
growing  months  is  not  sufficient  for  the  production   of 


SOIL   WATER  87 

maximum  crops.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  country, 
this  is  particularly  true  during  July  and  August.  The 
tillage  of  the  soil  is  therefore  of  great  importance,  as  a 
means  of  absorbing  and  retaining  as  much  water  as  pos- 
sible for  use  during  the  months  when  the  demand  for  water 
is  so  great. 

When  seeds  are  planted,  it  is  very  often  desirable  to 
increase  evaporation,  so  that  the  seeds  that  are  near  the 
surface  will  be  kept  moist  by  the  water  as  it  rises  to  the 
surface.  This  is  accomplished  by  packing  the  ground  over 
the  seeds  by  rolhng  the 
field,  or  by  packing  it 
over  the  row  only,  as  is 
done  by  a  corn  planter. 
(See  Figs.  44,  45,  46.)  The 
packing  makes  the  pore 
spaces  smaller  so  that 
the  capillary  movement  of 

,  'ii      u  Fig.  46.  A  roller.  Crushes  clods  and  packs 

the     water     will      be     more      the  surface  so  as  to  keep  the  seed  moist  at 


rapid. 


the  expense  of  increased  evaporation. 

89.  Dry-Land  Farming.  Two-fifths  of  the  United  States 
is  too  dry  to  raise  good  crops  without  irrigation.  (See  Fig. 
47.)  Few  crops  can  be  grown  successfully  without  twenty 
or  more  inches  of  rainfall.  In  the  past  few  years,  consid- 
erable attention  has  been  given  to  a  system  of  farming 
that  attempts  to  save  all  the  rainfall  of  one  or  more  years 
for  the  use  of  a  crop  during  the  growing  season.  In  this 
way,  the  rainfall  of  two  years  can  be  used  for  the  produc- 
tion of  one  crop.  Sometimes  two  crops  are  grown  in  three 
years.  In  this  system,  the  land  is  kept  tilled  during  the 
year  when  there  is  no  crop,  so  that  the  rainfall  may  be 


88 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  47.  Annual  rainfall  in  the  United  States.  Areas  receiving  less  than  twenty 
inches  must  be  farmed  with  special  reference  to  the  conservation  of  moisture, 
unless  irrigated. 

quickly  absorbed,  and  so  that  evaporation  may  be  checked 
as  far  as  is  possible.  Fair  crops  of  wheat  have  thus  been 
grown  every  other  year  with  only  twelve  inches  of  rain- 
fall  annually. 


Irrigation 

90.  Areas  Requiring  Irrigation.  As  stated  above,  two- 
fifths  of  the  United  States  is  too  dry  to  produce  regular 
crops  without  irrigation.  If  all  the  water  that  falls  in  this 
area  were  used  for  irrigation,  only  about  one-tenth  of 
the  land  could  be  irrigated.  The  total  area  now  irrigated 
is  about  10,000,000  acres.  This  is  a  little  over  one-thou- 
sandth of  the  arid  area.  Evidently  we  must  ever  have 
much  arid  land  that  is  fit  only  for  grazing,  and  large  tracts 
w^ill  always  be  too  dry  for  any  agricultural  use.  The  im- 
portance of  saving  all  the  water  is  apparent. 


SOIL   WATER  89 

The  earl}^  irrigation  enterprises  were  very  wasteful 
of  water,  but  more  care  is  now  coming  to  be  exercised. 
There  are  three  sources  of  serious  loss  of  water:  losses 
at  seasons  of  the  year  when  the  water  in  the  streams  can- 
not all  be  used,  seepage  from  canals,  and  over-irrigation. 
These  losses  may  be  decreased  by  building  reservoirs, 
and  by  using  more  care  in  constructing  canals,  and  in 
applying  water. 

91.  Storage  Reservoirs.  During  a  part  of  the  year,  the 
rivers  carry  enough  water  to  irrigate  much  more  land  than 
can  be  supplied  through  the  summer  months.  The  flow 
of  the  Nile  in  September  is  thirty-five  times  that  of  June. 
To  hold  back  a  part  of  this  water,  the  English  built  the 
Assuan  reservoir,  which  extends  up  the  Nile  for  a  hundred 
miles. 

Forests  in  the  mountains  serve  to  hold  back  the  water 
and  so  distribute  it  through  the  season.  But  reservoirs 
are  also  necessary.  In  India,  9,500,000  acres  are  irrigated 
from  reservoirs, — an  area  equal  to  about  five  times  the 
area  of  improved  farm  land  in  New  Jersey. 

The  United  States  Government  is  now  building  large 
reservoirs  for  storing  irrigation  water.  The  projects  now 
approved  provide  for  the  irrigation  of  1,909,000  acres, 
located  in  fourteen  states.  The  total-  cost  is  estimated 
to  be  $34,270,000,  or  about  $18  per  acre.  The  land  thus 
reclaimed  is  sold  to  settlers,  so  that  it  more  than  pays 
the  cost  of  the  reservoirs  and  canals.  The  money  can  be 
used  over  again  for  irrigation  of  more  land.  After  all 
the  present  reservoirs  are  completed,  we  shall  have  only 
one-fifth  as  large  an  area  irrigated  from  them  as  is  thus 
irrigated  in  India. 


90  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

92.  Seepage  from  Canals.  Over  half  the  water  turned 
into  canals  in  the  United  States  is  lost  before  it  reaches 
the  fields.  In  India,  47  per  cent  is  lost  from  many  canals.^ 
Some  of  this  loss  is  due  to  evaporation,  but  most  of  it  is 
due  to  seepage.  If  the  water  carries  considerable  silt, 
the  losses  are  less.  Silt  is  one  of  the  greatest  factors  in 
making  canals  water-tight.  Care  in  canal  construction 
will  also  save  considerable  water. 

Seepage  not  only  causes  a  loss  of  water,  but  it  often 
injures  large  areas  of  land,  because  of  the  deposits  of 
alkali  by  the  water,  or  because  of  the  rise  of  alkali  with 
the  evaporation  of  the  water. 

93.  Over-Irrigation.  This  not  only  wastes  water,  but 
the  excessive  amounts  are  a  detriment  to  crops.  It  also 
aids  in  spoiling  the  land  by  making  the  accumulation  of 
alkali  more  rapid.  It  is  more  profitable  to  use  moderate 
amounts  of  water  and  follow  by  tillage  to  prevent  evap- 
oration. 

94.  Alkali.  In  arid  regions,  very  little  of  the  water 
drains  away  as  it  does  in  humid  regions.  Nearly  all  the 
water  evaporates  from  the  soil.  The  water  contains 
small  amounts  of  salts  in  solution  and  these  are  left  by 
evaporation.  The  process  is  similar  to  the  formation  of 
salt  lakes.  The  best  remedy  is  drainage.  By  under-draining 
the  land  and  flooding  it,  the  salts  may  be  carried  away 
with  the  water.  Some  soils  have  such  good  natural  under- 
drainage  that  artificial  drainage  is  not  necessary.  If  the 
land  is  flooded  without  drainage,  the  water  sinks  into  the 
soil,  and,  as  it  rises,  brings  with  it  more  alkali  to  be  left 
near  the  surface. 

^Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  I,  p.  422. 


SOIL  WATER  91 

Drainage 

95.  Best  Amount  of  Water.  Water  is  the  most  im- 
portant plant-food, — the  one  that  most  frequently  limits 
the  crops  of  the  world.  It  is  also  the  plant-food  that 
frequently  causes  injury  by  appearing  in  too  large  quan- 
tities. 

For  the  best  growth  of  crops,  the  water  content  of 
the  soil  should  be  maintained  at  about  50  to  60  per  cent 
of  the  water  capacity  of  the  soil.  (Laboratory  Exercise, 
page  107.)  If  there  is  either  much  more  or  much  less 
water,  the  growth  of  the  plant  is  injured.  Commonly  the 
soil  is  saturated  with  water  during  the  early  part  of  the 
season,  and  later  becomes  too  dry,  so  that  the  crop  is 
injured  by  both  extremes. 

96.  Harmful  Effects  of  Too  Much  Water.  The  most 
serious  result  of  having  too  much  water  in  the  soil  is  the 
exclusion  of  air,  which  is  essential  for  plant  growth  and 
for  the  activities  of  the  soil  organisms  (page  97).  It  also 
prevents  plant  roots  from  growing  deeply  into  the  soil, 
makes  the  soil  cold  and  delays  farm  work.  Since  farm 
work  cannot  be  done  at  the  proper  time,  weeds  are  more 
likely  to  obtain  a  foothold.  Wet  land  is  nearly  always 
weedy  land. 

97.  All  Soils  Require  Drainage.  If  a  soil  is  not  drained, 
the  excess  of  water  will  prevent  the  growth  of  crops. 
Or,  if  there  is  no  excess  of  water,  salts  and  acids  will  ac- 
cumulate to  such  an  extent  as  to  kill  crops,  as  in  the  case 
of  alkali  and  marsh  soils.  Fortunately  a  very  large  pro- 
portion of  the  farm  land  is  underlain  by  porous  subsoil, 
so   that   drainage  takes   place   naturally.     Whenever  the 


92  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

natural  drainage  is  not  sufficient,  artificial  drainage  has 
to  be  resorted  to. 

Much  of  the  sandy  land  on  the  Atlantic  coast  is  too 
well  drained.  The  soil  is  so  open  that  truck  growers  often 
say  that  the  rain  falls  faster  after  it  strikes  the  soil  than 
it  did  in  the  air.  This  region  also  contains  the  other  ex- 
treme of  marshes  that  are  useless  because  too  wet.  Most 
farm  lands  lie  between  these  extremes.  There  are  some 
farms  that  need  a  complete  system  of  tile  drains^  placed 
30  to  100  feet  apart.  But  for  each  farm  that  needs  so  com- 
plete a  system  of  drainage  there  are  many  that  need  par- 
tial drainage.  Probably  the  majority  of  farms  east  of  the 
Missouri  river  have  one  or  more  wet  places  that  would 
be  improved  by  tile  drainage  or  surface  ditches.  The 
necessity  for  drainage  depends  much  on  the  crop  to  be 
raised.  Hay  and  pasture  may  do  well  on  land  that  is  so 
wet  as  to  ruin  corn  and  potatoes. 

98.  Effects  of  Tile  Drainage  During  Drought.  At  first 
thought,  we  should  expect  that  tile  drainage  would  make 
the  land  drier  during  a  dry  time,  and  so  cause  plants 
to  suffer  from  drought.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  exactly  the 
opposite  occurs.  Tile  drains  remove  the  excess  of 
water  during  periods  of  rainfall,  so  that  the  plant  roots 
deeply.  The  roots  are  then  deep  enough  to  endure  a  con- 
siderable drought.  The  roots  will  actually  be  in  more 
moist  soil  as  a  result  of  the  drains,  and  will  have  a  much 
larger  amount  of  soil  from  which  to  draw  water.  The 
shallow-rooted  plants  in  undrained  soil  are  the  first  to 
suffer  from  drought. 

^Tiles  are  hollow  tubes  about  a  foot  long.  They  are  made  of  clay  and 
are  burned  like  brick.  They  are  laid  end  to  end  about  two  to  four  feet  below 
tne  surface  of  the  ground. 


SOIL  WATER  93 

99.  Kinds  of  Drains.  The  most  universal  kind  of  drains 
are  the  surface  ditches.  These  are  useful  in  many  cases, 
but  are  not  so  desirable  as  under-drains  where  the  latter 
can  be  used.  Surface  drains  that  are  to  be  permanent 
should  usually  be  made  with  sloping  sides,  so  that  they 
can  be  driven  across.  Stone  under-drains  are  often  made 
in  regions  where  the  land  is  stony.  They  require  much 
more  time  for  construction  than  tile  drains.  At  the  present 
relative  prices  of  tile  and  labor  it  is  probable  that  tiles 
are  cheaper  than  stone.  Poles  and  many  other  devices 
have  been  employed. 

100.  Laying  Tile  Drains.  The  method  of  laying  drains 
can  be  learned  from  books,  or  better  by  seeing  it  done, 
or  best  by  doing  it.  There  are  a  few  points  that  are  often 
neglected. 

The  tile  should  be  hard-burned  and  should  not  be  too 
small.  It  is  doubtful  whether  tile  smaller  than  three-inch 
should  ever  be  used.  Some  manufacturers  in  Illinois — 
the  state  that  uses  the  most  tile — do  not  make  any  tile 
smaller  than  four  inches.  Their  experience  is  that  farm- 
ers who  use  these  sizes  are  so  well  pleased  as  to  buy  more, 
while  those  who  use  the  smaller  sizes  are  less  likely  to 
be  satisfied.  It  is  much  more  difficult  to  lay  small  tile 
accurately,  and  they  are  much  more  likely  to  get  out  of 
place.  A  slight  movement  is  sufficient  to  break  the  connec- 
tion of  the  openings.  The  small  tile  are  more  likely  to  fill  up. 
If  possible,  the  lower  part  of  the  line  of  tile  should  have 
a  steeper  fall  than  the  upper  part,  so  as  to  guard  against 
filling  up  with  silt.  For  the  same  reason,  the  outlet  should 
always  be  above  standing  water. 

A  map  of  the  farm  showing  the  location  of  drains  should 


94  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

always  be  kept.  This  will  make  it  easier  to  locate  any 
tile  that  fills  up.  It  will  also  make  it  possible  to  lay  ad- 
ditional tiles  in  the  proper  places. 

101.  Drainage  as  a  Government  Problem.  Aside  from 
the  problem  of  drainage  on  the  individual  farms,  there 
are  many  large  swamp  areas  that  can  be  reclaimed  by  co- 
operative effort.  Professor  Shaler  estimates  that  there 
are  over  3,000,000  acres  of  reclaimable  sea-coast  marsh 
land  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States.  The 
draining  of  such  land  is  a  problem  for  the  United  States 
and  state  governments,  just  as  is  the  irrigation  of  arid 
regions.  It  is  probable  that  such  lands  could  be  sold  for 
much  more  than  the  cost  of  drainage.  The  drainage  of 
these  areas  will  not  only  add  to  the  amount  of  good  farm 
land,  but  it  will  make  the  coast  cities  much  more  healthful. 

SOIL  AIR 

102.  Importance  of  Soil  Air.  Most  soils  are  about 
half  pore  space.  That  is,  a  cubic  foot  of  dry  soil  would 
contain  about  half  a  cubic  foot  of  air.  As  the  water  in 
soils  increases  the  amount  of  air  decreases,  so  that  in  a 
saturated  soil  there  is  very  little  air.  Soil  air  is  just  as 
essential  for  the  growth  of  farm  crops  as  air  is  for  animals. 
If  water  excludes  all  air  from  the  soil,  the  crops  will  drown 
just  as  surely,  if  not  so  quickly,  as  a  person  drowns  in  water. 
There  are  some  marsh  plants  that  can  grow  in  standing 
water,  and  rice  can  do  so,  but  the  usual  farm  crops  would 
utterly  fail  under  such  conditions.  Even  rice  requires 
some  air  in  the  soil,  as  do  the  submerged  seaweeds,  but 
in  this  case  they  are  able  to  get  air  from  the  water. 


ORGANIC   MATTER   OF   THE  SOIL  95 

Aside  from  its  direct  use  to  crops,  soil  air  is  essential 
in  several  indirect  ways.  When  air  is  excluded  from  the 
soil,  the  beneficial  soil  organisms  cease  to  be  active.  It 
is  from  the  air  in  the  soil  that  these  organisms  and  the 
leguminous  plants  secure  free  nitrogen  for  the  use  of  crops. 
Not  only  does  the  fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen  cease 
when  air  is  excluded  from  the  soil,  but  under  these  con- 
ditions the  organisms  that  break  down  nitrogen  com- 
pounds are  very  active,  so  that  the  nitrogen  that  was 
fixed  is  lost  by  being  returned  to  the  air.  One  of  the  first 
effects  of  having  the  soil  too  wet  is  the  yellowing  of  the 
leaves.    This  appears  to  be  due  to  the  lack  of  nitrogen. 

Some  soils  are  too  well  aerated,  just  as  some  are  too 
well  drained.    Usually  it  is  the  same  soils  in  each  case. 

ORGANIC  MATTER   OF   THE   SOIL 

103.  The  Uses  of  Humus.  All  productive  soils  contain 
decaying  roots,  leaves  and  animal  life.  This  partly  decayed 
organic  matter  is  called  humus.  It  is  the  humus  that 
gives  soils  their  dark  color.  Humus  is  necessary  for  the 
growth  of  good  crops.  Plants  may  be  grown  in  fine  sand 
if  all  the  plant-food  elements  are  suppUed.  Under  field 
conditions,  humus  is  necessary  if  these  foods  are  to  be 
supplied  for  the  successful  production,  of  crops. 

Humus  has  many  functions  in  soils.  It  increases  the 
water-holding  power,  which  is  particularly  important  on 
sandy  land.  It  loosens  heavy  soil  and  promotes  aera- 
tion, which  are  of  special  importance  on  clay  soils.  It 
furnishes  food  for  bacteria.  These,  acting  on  the  humus, 
change  nitrogen  to   nitric   acid   so   that   it   is   ready  for 


96  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

plant  food.  As  humus  decays,  it  also  liberates  carbon 
dioxid  (carbonic  acid  gas).  This  acts  on  the  minerals 
of  the  soil,  making  them  soluble  and  ready  for  plant  use. 
Another  extremely  important  function  of  humus  is  that 
it  encourages  the  growth  of  the  bacteria  that  fix  free 
nitrogen  from  the  soil  air,  rendering  it  available  as  a  plant- 
food.  Dark-colored  soils  usually  contain  considerable 
humus.     Such  soils   are  usually  fertile. 

The  more  air  in  the  soil,  the  more  rapidly  the  humus 
is  decomposed.  If  a  soil  is  saturated  with  water,  the  oxi- 
dation practically  stops  and  organic  matter  accumulates. 
This  is  the  way  that  peat  and  muck  are  formed.  For 
crop-production,  a  moderate  rate  of  decomposition  is  to 
be  preferred.  If  too  rapid,  the  supply  is  exhausted;  if  too 
slow,  the  plant  does  not  receive  enough  food. 

104.  Humus  of  Arid  and  Humid  Soils.  In  humid  regions 
the  soil  is  usually  much  darker  colored  than  in  the  arid 
regions.  The  surface  soil  is  much  darker  than  the  subsoil 
because  of  the  presence  of  more  humus.  In  arid  regions 
the  soils  are  so  well  aerated  that  the  organic  matter  i& 
rapidly  decomposed,  leaving  no  difference  in  color  of  soil 
and  subsoil.  The  subsoils  in  humid  regions  are  not  very 
productive,  but  in  arid  regions  there  is  not  much  difference 
between  soil  and  subsoil.  This  is  a  great  convenience, 
for  it  makes  it  possible  to  level  fields  for  irrigation. 

Some  analyses  have  shown  that,  on  an  average,  there 
is  about  four  times  as  much  humus  in  humid  soils  as  in 
arid  ones.  At  first  thought,  this  would  indicate  a  lack  of 
nitrogen  in  arid  regions.  But  the  humus  in  arid  regions 
is  so  much  richer  in  nitrogen  that  the  total  amount  present 
is  not  much  less. 


LIFE  IN   THE  SOIL  97 

LIFE   IN  THE   SOIL 

105.  Importance  of  Soil  Organisms.  As  we  have  seen, 
soil  is  not  a  dead  thing.  It  is  much  more  than  a  collection 
of  rock  particles.  It  is  teeming  with  life.  Without  this 
life  the  soil  would  never  have  been  able  to  produce  farm 
crops.  If  all  the  Hving  things  in  the  soil  should  die,  the 
soil  would  soon  fail  to  produce  crops.  Keeping  the  soil 
productive  is  very  largely  a  matter  of  keeping  these 
organisms  thrifty.  The  roots  and  stems  of  plants  furnish 
food  for  the  bacteria  and  molds.  The  waste  products 
furnish  food  for  other  bacteria.  Eventually,  the  food  is 
in  a  form  available  for  crops  to  use  again.  So  the  material 
is  worked  over  and  over  again.  Any  break  in  the  link 
will  affect  all  of  the  chain.  If  the  organisms  do  not  decom- 
pose the  roots  and  stems  properly,  the  new  crops  will 
suffer.  If  there  is  not  enough  humus  in  the  soil,  the  bac- 
teria suffer  and  crops  are  immediately  affected. 

Earthworms  serve  a  useful  purpose  in  the  soil  by  help- 
ing to  break  down  the  organic  matter.  They  also  do  much 
good  by  making  the  soil  porous.  A  soil  that  is  full  of  earth- 
worms is  nearly  always  fertile. 

The  molds  help  in  breaking  down  the  organic  matter, 
particularly  the  woody  matter;  but  the  most  important 
forms  of  life  in  the  soil  are  the  microscopic  organisms, 
yeasts   and  bacteria. 

106.  Soil-Bacteria  are  very  minute  living  things, — far  too 
small  to  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  They  are  so  small  that 
they  have  to  be  magnified  500  to  1,000  times  before  they 
can  be  seen  with  a  microscope.  (See  Fig.  48.)  On  an  average, 
it  takes  about  25,000  bacteria  placed  end  to  end  to.meas- 


98  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

ure  an  inch.  Of  the  very  smallest  ones,  it  takes  about  150,- 
000  to  measure  an  inch.  The  small  size  of  the  bacteria 
is  more  than  made  up  by  the  rapidity  with  which  they 
multiply.  They  reproduce  by  sim- 
ple division,  one  individual  divides 
_,  into  two.    This  division  may  take 

Fig.  48.   The  point  of  the  -^ 

finest  cambric  needle.  A  par-      place  everv  fifteen  to  thirty  min- 

ticle  or   dust  above  the  point        ir  j  j 

and  a  mass  of  bacteria  below,  ^^gg  under  favorable  couditious. 
If  each  divides  into  two  every  quarter  of  an  hour,  there 
will  be  an  immense  number  of  them  at  the  end  of  a 
day,  even  if  there  were  only  one  in  the  morning.  The 
limit  of  food  supply  and  other  conditions  prevent  this 
rapid  multiplication  from  continuing. 

Bacteria  of  many  kinds  are  present  in  all  soils,  ranging 
from  less  than  28,000,000  per  ounce  of  soil  to  many  times 
this  number.  In  fertile  soils  like  gardens  there  are  many 
bilhons  per  ounce.  In  a  fertihzing  experiment  in  New 
Jersey  it  was  found  that  the  plots  that  gave  the  greatest 
yields  of  asparagus  also  contained  most  bacteria.  Often 
there  is  a  relationship  between  the  number  and  kind  of 
soil-bacteria  and  fertility. 

Bacteria  may  seem  to  be  too  small  to  be  of  much  con- 
sequence, but  they  are  far  from  unimportant.  We  know 
how  many  contagious  diseases  are  caused  by  bacteria, 
so  that  we  must  recognize  their  power.  Perhaps  you  have 
come  to  look  upon  all  bacteria  as  harmful, — things  to 
be  avoided.  But,  while  certain  ones  cause  tuberculosis, 
diphtheria  and  lock-jaw,  many  other  kinds  are  useful 
to  us.  Bacteria  are  microscopic  plants.  We  should  look 
on  them  as  we  do  on  other  plants.  Some  plants,  as  corn 
and  cotton,  are  useful;  others,  Uke  poison  ivy,  are  to  be 


LIFE  IN   THE  SOIL  99 

avoided.  Probably  we  could  not  live  were  it  not  for  the 
activities  of  the  useful  bacteria  and  yeast  plants. 

"The  different  chemical  changes  produced  by  soil- 
bacteria  are  quite  numerous.  Some  kinds  are  specialized 
for  one  series  of  changes,  others  for  changes  of  a  different 
sort.  Some  will  attack  by  preference  carbohydrates  like 
starch  or  sugar,  some  will  decompose  woody  tissue,  some 
will  cause  the  decay  of  proteins,  some  of  fats,  etc.  This 
division  of  labor  allows  an  effective  decomposition  of 
humus.  Various  gases  and  acids  are  produced  in  the 
course  of  decay,  and  help  to  decompose  the  rock  particles 
in  the  soil  and  to  render  the  mineral  plant-food  contained 
in  them  available.  The  insoluble  protein  compounds  in 
the  roots  and  stubble  are  broken  down  and  their  nitrogen 
changed  partly  to  ammonia.  The  particles  of  ammonia, 
as  they  are  thus  generated  by  bacteria  of  many  kinds, 
are  at  once  pounced  upon  by  a  special  class  of  germs 
whose  function  it  is  to  change  the  ammonia  into  nitrate. 
Thanks,  therefore,  to  the  activities  of  many  species  of 
bacteria,  the  nitrogen  locked  up  in  the  humus  and  in 
green  manure  is  transformed  gradually  into  nitrate,  and 
is  then  quite  suitable  for  the  building  of  roots,  stems, 
leaves  and  fruits."^ 

An  equally  important  function  of  soil-bacteria  is  the 
fixation  of  free  nitrogen  from  the  air.  This  subject  will 
be  treated  under  Nitrogen  in  the  next  chapter. 

iNew  Jersey,  Bulletin  No.  211,  p.  19. 


100  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  are  soils  formed? 

2.  How  do  the  soil  particles  become  small? 

3.  Do  stones  "grow"?  Why,  then,  are  there  more  large  ones  to  be 
picked  from  stony  land  every  few  years? 

4.  Which  fall  faster  in  the  air  or  water,  large  particles  or  small 
ones  of  the  same  material?  Why?  Describe  the  material  in  the  bed 
of  a  stream  in  its  upper,  middle  and  lower  courses.  Why  this  difference? 
Why  do  raindrops  fall  faster  than  the  fog? 

5.  What  soil  maps  has  the  Bureau  of  Soils  made  in  your  state? 
From  these  can  you  identify  any  of  the  soils  in  your  region? 

6.  What  is  the  relative  surface  area  of  a  one-foot  cube  of  stone  and 
of  the  same  stone  divided  into  one-inch  cubes? 

7.  What  is  the  name  of  the  force  that  holds  the  film  of  water  on 
a  piece  of  glass?    What  liquid  does  not  stick  to  glass? 

8.  Why  does  wet  clay  stick  to  one's  shoes? 

9.  How  did  the  Jews  make  brick  in  Egypt?  Would  a  dry  soil  make 
brick?  Apply  these  principles  to  tillage. 

10.  What  is  the  difference  in  taste  of  well  water  and  rain  water? 
Why? 

11.  How  often  should  house  plants  be  watered?  How  much  should 
be  applied  each  time? 

12.  Which  is  better,  to  water  a  flower-bed  a  little  every  day,  or 
to  give  it  more  water  less  frequently?  Why? 

13.  What  crops  of  your  region  will  grow  best  in  wet  seasons  or  on 
wet  lands?  Which  ones  will  stand  more  drought? 

14.  What  has  Holland  done  to  increase  the  area  of  farm  land? 
How  productive  is  this  soil? 

15.  What  human  diseases  would  be  decreased  if  our  marshes  were 
drained?    Why? 

16.  What  is  a  "dead  furrow"?  Why  so  named? 

17.  What  is  the  difference  in  color  of  hillsides  and  bottom-land 
soils?   Why? 

18.  If  a  bacterium  divided  into  two  every  fifteen  minutes,  how 
many  would  there  be  at  the  end  of  four  hours?  How  many  at  the  end 
of  a  day? 

19.  What  makes  bread  rise? 

20.  Where  does  a  fence-post  rot  most  rapidly?   Why? 

21.  The  statement  is  sometimes  made  that  "tillage  is  manure." 
Why? 


LABORATORY   EXERCISES    ;'-     .     .      ...lO*! 

22.  Account  for  the  bubbles  that  come  from  a  kettle  before  it 
begins  to  boil.    What  relation  has  this  to  water-plants?   To  fishes? 

23.  Which  is  heavier,  sand  or  clay?  Why  do  farmers  call  a  clay  soil 
"heavy"? 

24.  (For  classes  that  have  chemistry.)  The  red  and  yellow  colors 
of  soil  are  usually  due  to  iron  compounds.  Ferric  compounds  cause 
the  red  colors;  ferrous  compounds  cause  the  yellow  colors.  Why  do 
some  red  soils  have  yellow  subsoils?  Explain  the  formation  of  red 
brick  from  yellow  clay.  What  would  you  conclude  of  the  aeration 
of  a  soil  that  has  a  mottled  subsoil? 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

32.  Origin  of  Soils. 

Field  Lesson. — If  the  following  points  have  not  been  studied  in 
Physical  Geography,  one  or  more  field  trips  should  be  devoted  to  them: 
Geological  origin  of  the  soils  of  the  region.  Evidences  of  this  origin 
seen  in  the  field  trip.  Find  a  rounded  pebble;  what  rounded  it?  Find 
a  "rotten"  stone  or  a  place  where  a  rock  is  covered  by  a  disintegrat-: 
ing  rock;  explain.  Is  the  farm  land  rolling?  Account  for  the  low  places. 
What  part  has  the  wind  played  in  soil  formation?  Find  some  evidence 
of  the  work  of  earthworms,  woodchucks,  prairie  dogs,  or  other  animals 
in  soil  formation.  Find  evidence  of  the  part  played  by  plants  in  soil  for- 
mation— decay  of  roots,  leaves,  etc.  Cross  a  meadow  or  pasture.  Are 
there  any  spots  that  are  covered  with  weeds?  Are  the  weeds  there  chiefly 
because  they  kill  the  grass  or  because  the  grass  failed  to  grow?  Notice 
that  nature  rarely  leaves  any  permanently  bare  ground.  Of  what  value 
are  weeds  in  soil  formation?  If  there  are  any  steep  hills  in  the  region, 
notice  the  relative  erosion  on  hillsides  that  are  forested,  tilled,  pastured. 
What  use  is  made  of  steep  hillsides  in  the  neighborhood?  Do  better 
crops  grow  on  a  hillside  or  at  the  foot  of  the  hill?  Why?  Why  are 
valleys  generally  fertile?  Nearly  all  of  these  points  that  are  adapted 
to  the  region  may  be  answered  in  crossing  any  farm. 

33.  Field  Lesson. 

Materials. — Rule,  spade,  six  fruit-jars. 

Go  to  a  nearby  farm.  Dig  a  hole  about  two  feet  deep.  What  is  the 
color  of  the  soil?  Of  the  subsoil?  Which  is  more  compact?  How  deep 
is  the  soil? 

Find  pieces  of  partly  decayed  roots  and  stems.  What  color  are 
they?  Which  contains  more  of  this  organic  matter,  or  humus,  the  soil 


l^Qi^^ll 


'ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


or  the  subsoil?    How  does  a  farmer  increase  the  amount  of  humus  in 
the  soil? 

Have  each  pupil  rub  samples  of  soil  and  subsoil  between  his  fingers 
so  as  to  become  familiar  with  its  texture.  Fill  one  of  the  jars  with  soil 
and  one  with  subsoil  and  cover  each.  Label  each  with  the  name  and 
date.  The  samples  are  to  be  kept  tightly  covered  for  use  in  numbers 
34  and  35.  Similarly  study  and  collect  several  different  soils  and  sub- 
soils. If  possible,  compare  good  and  poor  soils.  Also  compare  sandy 
soils,  loams  and  clays. 

34.  Determination  of  the  Per  Cent  of  Water,  Organic  Matter  and  Mineral 
Matter  in  Soils. 

Materials. — Soil  samples  collected  under  No.  33,  porcelain  cruci- 
bles, balances.  If  the  school  does  not  have  crucibles  and  laboratory 
burners,  the  soil  may  be  dried  over  a  stove  and  then  burned  in  an  iron 
shovel  in  a  stove. 

If  different  members  of  the  class  take  different  samples,  all  those 
collected  may  be  compared.  Weigh  the  crucible.  Put  ten  grams 
of  the  sample  in  it.  Weigh  before  the  water  has  time  to  evaporate 
much.  Heat  this  a  little  hotter  than  boiling  water,  but  do  not  burn  it; 
one  hour  at  110°  C.  or  five  hours  at  100°  C.  is  about  right.  Weigh  again. 
This  gives  the  amount  of  water  evaporated.  Now  heat  to  dull  redness. 
After  it  is  thoroughly  burned  for  one  hour,  weigh.  Compute  and  tab- 
ulate results  as  follows: 


Sandy  Loam 

Clay 

Soil 

Subsoil 

Soil 

Subsoil 

Weight  of  crucible  (grams) 

10 

10 

10 

Weight  of  crucible  and  soil  (grams) 

Weight  of  soil  (grams) . . . 

10 

Weight  of  both  when  dry  (grams) 

Per  cent  of  water 

Weight  of  both  after  burning  (grams) 

Weight  of  organic  matter    

Per  cent  of  organic  matter   

Per  cent  of  mineral  matter 

What  change  in  color  took  place  as  the  soil  dried?  Is  the  color  of 
the  soil  changed  by  rain?  What  change  is  there  in  color  after  the  soil 
was  burned?  After  burning,  only  mineral  matter  remains.  Compare  this 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES  103 

burning  with  burning  wood.  What  kind  of  soil  contained  more  water? 
More  organic  matter?  Do  the  surface  or  the  subsoils  contain  more 
organic  matter? 

35.  Per  Cent  of  Air  in  Soils. 

Materials. — Beakers  or  jars,  graduate,  soil  samples  collected  in 
No.  33. 

Put  a  measured  amount  of  soil  into  each  beaker.  Pour  in  water 
from  a  graduate  containing  a  measured  amount  of  water  until  it  just 
rises  to  the  surface  of  the  soil.  How  much  water  does  it  take  in  each 
case?  Repeat  this  for  a  very  dry  soil.  The  amount  of  water  required 
is  an  approximate  measure  of  the  air-space.  We  shall  then  have  the 
air  space  in  a  dry  soil  and  in  those  collected  under  field  conditions. 
The  dryer  the  soil  the  more  air-space  it  contains.  The  total  space  in 
a  dry  soil  is  the  pore-space.    Record  results  for  each  soil  as  follows: 

Volume  of  soil 

Volume  of  water  added 

Per  cent  of  air-space 

36.  Soil  Particles  and  Their  Separation. 

Materials. — Two  beakers,  three  fruit- jars,  pan,  samples  of   soil. 

(a)  Put  about  a  tablespoonful  of  sand  m  one  beaker  and  clay  in 
another.  Shake  each  one  and  allow  to  settle.  Which  settles  more 
rapidly?  Why?  Which  would  be  deposited  first  when  a  swift  stream 
is  checked?  Where  in  your  neighborhood  is  there  evidence  of  this 
sorting  power  of  water?  Did  the  glaciers  thus  sort  soil?  How  could 
we  separate  the  different-sized  particles  in  a  soil? 

(b)  The  day  before  this  lesson  is  given,  put  about  four  tablespoon- 
fills  of  a  loam  soil  in  a  fruit-jar  and  nearly  fill  with  water.  Cover.  Shake 
occasionally.  After  standing  a  day,  shake  thoroughly.  Allow  to  settle 
one  minute.  Pour  the  rily  water  into  another  jar;  allow  this  to  stand 
one  hour.  Pour  off  the  rily  water  and  evaporate  by  setting  on  a  stove 
or  over  a  flame.  When  dry  (which  will  probably  be  for  the  next  lesson), 
examine  the  dry  separates.  The  part  that  settled  out  first  is  sand,  the 
second  is  silt,  and  the  finest  material  is  clay.  Examine  them  to  find 
differences  in  texture.  Which  ones  stick  together?  Would  pure  clay 
or  pure  sand  make  a  good  soil?  Why?  Save  the  materials  for  number  37. 

37.  Microscopical  Examination  of  Soil  Particles. 

Materials. — Compound  microscope.  Sand,  silt  and  clay  from  No.  35 
Examine  the  sand  particles  (X50),  i.  e.,  use  the  combination  of  eye- 
pieces and  objectives  that  magnify  fifty  diameters.    Mix  the  silt  with 


104  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

a  little  water  and  examine  a  drop  (XlOO).  Only  a  little  of  the  silt  is 
better  than  too  much  in  a  drop.  Mix  the  clay  with  water  and  examine  a 
drop  of  the  slightly  rily  water  (X500) .  Have  each  student  make  a  draw- 
lying  of  a  few  particles  of  each.  Notice  that  the  soil  particles  are  real 
minute  rocks  and  humus.  Find  black  particles  of  humus  and  draw  them. 
Find  flocculated  particles  of  clay,  i.  e.,  a  number  of  particles  united  to 
form  a  compound  particle.  If  such  particles  are  not  readily  seen,  a  little 
clay  soil  moistened  and  a  drop  put  under  the  micsrocope  will  show 
them.  Do  you  see  any  reason  for  having  the  soil  soak  a  day?  Keeping 
a  clay  in  good  condition  is  largely  a  matter  of  keeping  the  particles 
thus  flocculated  or  united  into  small  crumbs. 

38.  One  Effect  of  Humus  and  of  Lime  and  of  Freezing  on  a  Clay  Soil 

(for  Humid  Regions). 

Materials — Two  quarts  of  clay,  one-fourth  pound  unslaked  lime, 
leaf  mold  or  rotted  manure,  bottles  or  beakers. 

(a)  An  hour  or  more  before  the  class .  period,  the  lime  should  be 
nearly  covered  with  water  to  slake  it.  Divide  the  clay  into  four  equal 
parts.  To  the  first  two  add  water;  to  the  third  add  water  and  about 
half  its  volume  of  humus;  to  the  fourth  add  lime-milk.  Make  each  into 
a  ball  and  set  aside  to  dry.  If  the  weather  is  cold,  put  one  of  the  first 
two  where  it  will  freeze.  In  a  few  days  examine  and  see  which  is  more 
mellow.  What  do  you  conclude  as  to  the  probable  effect  of  working 
clay  land  when  too  wet?  What  is  one  value  of  organic  matter  in  clay 
soil?  What  is  one  value  of  using  lime  on  a  clay  soil?  In  what  way  do 
farmers  add  organic  matter  to  their  soils? 

(6)  Put  about  a  tablespoonful  of  clay  in  each  of  the  two  bottles 
Fill  with  water  and  shake.  Add  a  little  lime-milk  to  one  bottle.  Which 
one  settles  more  rapidly?  Why?  Is  lime  used  on  soils  in  your  vicinity? 

39.  Soil  Solutions. 

Materials. — Four  or  more  "slips"  of  Wandering  Jew  or  Inch  Plant 
(Tradescantia),  two  bottles,  two  crucibles,  well  water,  rain  water,  or 
distilled  water. 

(a)  Evaporate  some  well  water  in  one  crucible  and  some  rain-water 
in  another.  What  is  left  in  each  case?  What  causes  the  inside  of  a 
tea-kettle  to  become  coated? 

(6)  Put  two  of  these  slips  in  each  bottle,  fill  one  with  well-water 
and  one  with  rain-water.  Change  the  water  about  three  times  a  week, 
until  the  results  are  secured.   In  which  do  the  plants  grow  best?  Why? 


LABORATORY    EXERCISES 


105 


40.   Water  Capacity  of  Soils. 

Materials. — Air-dry  sand,  clay,  loam,  leaf-mold,  or  rotten  manure, 
spring-balance,  four  tin  cans  or  paint-cans  with  holes  punched  in  the 
bottom,  holes  in  the  side,  and  string  tied  across  for  a  bail. 

(a)  Weigh  each  can.  Fill  two-thirds  full,  one  with  each  of  the  three 
Boils,  one  with  mixed  clay  and  leaf-mold,  one  with  mixed  sand  and  leaf- 
mold.  Add  water  until  thoroughly  wet.  Let  this  drain  off  for  about 
fifteen  minutes.   Weigh. 


Weight  of  can 

Weight  of  can  and  soil    . . . 

Weight  of  soil 

Weight  of  both  with  water 

Weight  of  water . 

Per  cent  of  water 


Sand 


Sand  and 
leaf  mold 


Loam 


Clay 


Clay  and 
leaf  mold 


The  soil  should  be  very  dry  before  this  experiment.  It  will  still 
contain  some  water,  so  that  the  results  will  all  be  too  low.  Why  does 
sand  hold  less  water  than  clay?  What  effect  on  water  capacity  does 
the  addition  of  organic  matter  have?  Notice  that  the  organic  matter 
not  only  holds  water  on  its  surface,  but  all  through  it,  like  a  piece  of 
bread  that  soaks  up  water.  Give  two  ways  in  which  a  farmer  might 
increase  the  water-holding  capacity  of  his  soils. 

41.   Capillary  Rise  of  Water  in  Soils. 

Materials. — Two  small  glass  plates,  three  glass  tubes  three  feet  long, 
one  and  one-half  to  two  inches  in  diameter,  pan  of  water,  cloth,  and 
sand,  loam  and  clay.  Three  lamp  chimneys  may  be  used  in  place  of 
the  glass  tubes. 

(a)  Fasten  the  two  pieces  of  glass  together  by  a  rubber  band. 
Put  a  little  splint  at  one  side  and  set  on  edge  in  water.  Notice  that 
the  water  rises  between  the  plates  and  that  it  rises  highest  on  the  side 
where  the  plates  are  nearest  together.   Make  a  drawing  of  this. 

(b)  Put  a  piece  of  cloth  over  the  end  of  each  tube  and  fasten  with 
a  rubber  band  or  tie  it  on.  Fill  each  with  one  of  the  soils.  Set  in  the 
pan  of  water.  In  which  does  the  water  rise  most  rapidly?  Record  the 
results  as  follows: 


106 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


Time 


One-half  hour 
One  hour.  .  .  . 

One  day 

Two  days  .  .  . 


Height  of  water 


Sand 


Loam 


Clay 


Continue  for  about  a  week.  In  which  does  the  water  rise  highest? 
Why?  Notice  that  it  rises  highest  between  the  plates  where  they  were 
nearest  together  and  rises  highest  in  the  soil  that  has  the  finest  spaces. 
Compare  with  the  rise  of  oil  in  a  lamp-wick,  ink  in  a  blotter,  etc.  What 
is  the  object  of  compacting  the  soil  over  seeds  when  planted?  In  what 
different  ways  is  this  done? 

42.    Evaporation  from  the  Soil.    (Special  Importance  in  Arid  Regions). 

Materials. — Spring  balance;  three  tin  cans,  holes  punched  in  sides 
and  string  for  a  bail,  the  same  as  used  in  No.  39;  soil,  fine  grass  or 
straw. 

Fill  each  can  nearly  full  of  soil.  Water  each  with  the  same  amount  of 
water.  Cover  the  top  of  one  with  grass.  Weigh.  As  soon  as  the  surface 
is  dry  enough,  stir  the  surface  on  one  about  an  inch  deep.  Keep  this 
et'rred.    Weigh  every  school  day  for  about  two  weeks. 


Date 

Bare  Surface 

Cultivated 

Grass  Mulch 



Weight 

Loss 

Weight 

Loss 

Weight 

Loss 

Which  loses  weight  most  rapidly?  Why?  What  is  one  use  of  cul- 
tivation during  a  dry  time?  Notice  that  if  we  stir  the  soil  when  it  is 
moist  we  hasten  the  evaporation  in  the  part  stirred.  In  dry  weather 
this  loose  soil  may  act  as  a  dust  mulch  to  prevent  evaporation.  Tillage 
may,  therefore,  first  hasten  and  then  lessen  evaporation.  What  would 
its  general  effect  be  in  a  wet  season?  In  a  dry  season?  Why  is  the 
soil  under  a  board  moist? 


LABORATORY   EXERCISES  107 

43.  Drainage. 

Materials. — Two  flower-pots  with  soil;  two  geraniums  or  other 
flowers  growing  in  pots. 

Set  one  geranium  in  a  dish  of  water.  Plant  corn  in  two  other  pots, 
and  stand  one  in  a  dish  of  water.  Keep  water  constantly  in  the  dishes 
under  the  two  pots,  and  water  the  other  two  in  the  usual  way.  Notice 
the  effect  of  the  excess  of  water  on  the  geranium  and  on  the  germination 
and  the  growth  of  the  corn.  If  the  com  in  the  wet  pot  grows,  empty 
both  pots  and  examine  the  roots.  In  which  do  the  roots  go  deeper? 
What  is  the  effect  of  flooding  on  field  crops?  On  trees?  Some  crops 
will  live  on  soils  that  are  so  wet  that  other  crops  would  be  killed.  What 
ones?  What  kind  of  material  underlies  the  soil  in  your  neighborhood  at 
depths  of  three  to  ten  feet — sand,  gravel,  clay,  rock?  This  can  be 
answered  by  observing  cuts  in  the  roads.  Is  the  soil  naturally  well 
drained? 

44.  Laying  Tile  Drain. 

If  possible,  practice  laying  a  tile  drain.  For  directions  see  King, 
Physics  of  Agriculture,  pp.  286-328. 

45.  Temperature  of  Soils. 

Materials. — Four  or  more  cigar-boxes  or  other  small  boxes,  soil, 
thermometers,  lime  or  chalk  dust. 

Fill  each  box  with  soil.  Water  one  box  so  as  to  keep  it  rather  wet, 
cover  the  surface  of  one  with  lime,  set  these  and  a  third  one  so  that 
they  will  face  the  sun  in  a  window.  Set  another  so  that  it  will  not 
face  the  sun,  that  is,  give  it  a  "north  slope."  Take  the  temperature 
of  each  from  time  to  time. 

A  field  trip  may  also  be  taken  to  get  the  temperatures  of  wet  and 
dry  soil,  north  and  south  slopes,  tilled  and  untilled  land. 

What  effect  does  color  have  on  temperature?  Why?  What  effect 
does  the  water  have?  Why?  Cut  a  square  hole  in  a  piece  of  paper.  Hold 
this  perpendicular  to  the  sun's  rays.  Hold  another  piece  of  paper  back 
of  this.  Measure  the  area  covered  by  the  sunshine.  Now  incline  the 
second  piece  of  paper  and  again  measure  the  area  of  sunshine.  Why 
does  the  slope  affect  the  temperature? 

46.  Absorbent  Power  of  Soil. 

Materials. — Tin  can  with  holes  in  bottom,  soil  and  manure. 
Mix  water  with  the  manure  so  as  to  get  manure  water.    Fill  the 


108  .     ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

tin  can  with  soil.    Pour  on  the  water  and  compare  the  color  of  that 
which  is  poured  on  with  that  "which  runs  through. 

47.   Examination  of  Bacteria. 

Materials. — Compound  microscope,  magnifying  about  500  to  1,000 
diameters. 

Moisten  some  soil.  Take  a  drop  of  the  water  and  examine  under 
the  microscope  for  bacteria  and  other  organisms. 

COLLATERAL  READING 

Soils,  by  S.  W.  Fletcher. 

Physics  of  Agriculture,  by  F.  H.  King. 

The  Soil,  by  F.  H.  King. 

The  Fertility  of  the  Land,  by  I.  P.  Roberts.    Pp.  34-130. 

Bacteriology  in  Relation  to  Country  Life,  by  J.  G.  Lipman. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  I,  pp.  323-531. 

Dry  Farming.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  329,  pp.  10-15,  and  No.  262, 
pp.  15-18. 

Reclamation  of  Salt  Marshes.    Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  320,  pp.  9-12. 

Management  of  Soil  to  Conserve  Moisture.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No. 
266. 


CHAPTER   VI 
MAINTAINING  THE  FERTILITY  OF  THE   LAND 

107.  How  Soils  Become  Productive.  It  has  required 
untold  ages  for  the  soils  of  the  world  to  be  formed  and  to 
become  productive.  At  first  the  particles  of  rock  were 
capable  of  supporting  only  such  plants  as  lichens  and 
mosses.  After  generations  of  these  plants  died  and  added 
their  material  to  the  soil,  it  became  possible  for  other 
plants  to  grow.  For  thousands  of  years  the  trees  and 
leaves  of  the  forests  have  fallen  and  decayed  to  form 
the  forest  soils.  On  the  great  western  plains  where  ''corn 
is  king,"  the  grasses  have  grown  for  centuries  and  have 
fallen  down  to  decay  so  that  still  larger  grasses  might  grow. 
When  such  lands  are  first  farmed,  the  crops  are  as  large 
as  the  climate  and  culture  will  allow,  for  the  soils  are  very 
rich. 

108.  How  Rich  Virgin  Soils  Become  Less  Productive. 
The  first  farming  of  a  virgin  soil  has  nearly  always  been 
grain  farming.  Grain  is  grown  every  year,  with  no  pro- 
vision for  keeping  up  the  humus  supply,  either  by 
means  of  barnyard  manure  or  by  plowing  under  material, 
even  the  straw  in  the  wheat-growing  sections  often  being 
burned.  Little  barnyard  manure  is  produced,  and  that 
which  is  formed  is  either  thrown  away  or  is  allowed  to 
lose  most  of  its  value  before  being  put  on  the  land.  Very 
few  farmers  in  any  part  of  America  have  yet  learned  to 
handle  manure  without  losing  one-half  of  its  value.    The 

(109) 


110 


ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 


Fis.  49.    Com  crop  on  a  farm  that  has  raised 
little  live  stock  for  fifty  years 


virgin  soils  are  so  productive  that  farmers  nearly  always 
make  the  mistake  of  thinking  that  they  will  always  remain 
so.    But  the  constant  tillage  exhausts  the  humus  supply, 

and  our  virgin  soils  be- 
come less  and  less  pro- 
ductive. The  change  is 
so  gradual  and  is  so  ob- 
scured by  the  weather 
variations  from  year  to 
year  that  the  real  state 
of  affairs  is  often  not 
reaUzed  until  the  soil  is 
so  poor  that  it  does 
not  pay  to  farm  it.  Sooner  or  later  every  farmer  must 
give  attention  to  means  of  maintaining  the  productivity 
of  the  land,  no  matter  how  rich  the  original  soil  may  be. 
Thirty  to  sixty  years  of  grain  farming  usually  exhausts 
a  rich  virgin  soil  to  such  an  extent  that  grain  farming 
no  longer  pays.  It  then 
becomes  necessary  to 
raise  stock  and  use  ma- 
nure or  to  plow  under 
green-manure.  Some- 
times commercial  fer- 
tilizers are  resorted  to 
and  these  may  pay  for 
a  few  years,  but  sooner 
or  later  some  provision 
for  renewing  the  humus  supply  must  be  made,  or  the 
field  must  be  temporarily  abandoned  to  allow  nature  to 
renew  the  supply  by  growing  weeds.    Many  fields  in  the 


Fig.  50.     Com  crop  on  a  dairy  farm  near 
Fig.  49 


MAINTAINING    THE   FERTILITY   OF   THE   LAND       \\\ 

older  sections  of  the  United  States  are  thus  abandoned 
for  a  few  years  to  recuperate  to  such  an  extent  that  a 
small  crop  may  be  grown.  A  wiser  way  of  farming  would 
be  to  begin  to  raise  animals  for  manure  production  before 
the  soils  become  so  exhausted. 

109.  Causes  of  Decreased  Productivity.  (1)  The  fer- 
tile surface  soil  may  be  carried  away  by  erosion  by  wind 
or  water.  Probably  more  soil  fertility  is  lost  in  this  way 
than  by  cropping.  This  may  be  prevented  by  keeping  the 
soil  in  sod,  by  keeping  cover  crops  on  it  during  the  win- 
ter and   by  terracing  the  land  as  is  done  in  the  South. 

(2)  The  soil  may  cease  to  hold  the  proper  moisture 
supply.  This  may  be  remedied  by  drainage  and  tillage;, 
and  by  additions  of  humus. 

(3)  The  soil  may  cease  to  be  favorable  for  the  develop- 
ment of  soil  organisms.  This  may  be  remedied  as  No.  2 
and  by  the  application  of  lime. 

(4)  The  nitrogen  of  the  soil  may  be  carried  awa}^  in 
drainage  water  or  may  escape  to  the  air  by  denitrification. 
Many  conditions  favor  the  activity  of  soil  organisms  that 
decompose  the  nitrogen  compounds  and  allow  the  nitro- 
gen to  escape  as  a  gas. 

(5)  The  constant  cropping  may  exhaust  the  available 
supply  of  some  plant-food.  Each  crop  removes  a  certain 
amount  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  or  potash.  In  time 
this  may  Hmit  the  available  supply.  Usually  it  is  not  a 
shortage  of  the  absolute  amount  of  such  food  in  the  soil,, 
but  a  shortage  of  that  which  the  plant  can  secure  in  solu- 
ble form.  This  may  be  remedied  by  drainage,  tillage, 
additions  of  humus,  hme,  fertiUzer  and  manure. 

(6)  The   exhaustion   of  the   humus   supply  is   usually 


112  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

the  fundamental  cause  for  decrease  in  crop  yields.  This 
affects  crops  in  many  ways.  It  may  result  in  an  unfavor- 
able physical  condition  of  the  soil  that  will  Hmit  the  crop 
when  there  is  no  shortage  of  food.  The  soil  may  ''bake" 
or  it  may  lose  its  water-holding  power.  Since  the  humus 
furnishes  the  nitrogen  by  its  decomposition  and  encourages 
the  fixation  of  free  nitrogen,  the  exhaustion  of  humus 
will  be  accompanied  by  a  shortage  of  nitrogen.  Or  because 
of  the  lack  of  humus  the  mineral  elements  may  not  be 
rapidly  enough  dissolved,  although  present  in  abundance. 
In  such  a  case  the  addition  of  phosphoric  acid  or  potash 
might  increase  the  crop,  but  it  would  usually  be  wiser  to 
supply  humus  so  as  to  render  available  the  food  that  is 
already  in  the  soil. 

Many  soils  are  losing  their  fertility  in  all  of  the  ways 
mentioned  above. 

110.  The  Limiting  Factor  in  Crop  Growth.  When  all 
plant-foods  are  supplied  in  abundance,  if  the  temperature 
is  too  low  or  too  high,  it  becomes  the  limiting  factor 
and  determines  the  yield.  If  all  other  conditions  are  favor- 
able, but  there  is  not  enough  sunshine,  the  crop  will  be 
limited  by  this  factor.  A  shortage  of  water  or  any  other 
plant-food  may  be  the  Umiting  factor.  The  other  plant- 
foods  that  often  Hmit  the  crop  are  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid,  potash  and  lime.  These  foods  are  rarely  needed 
to  the  same  extent.  If  nitrogen  is  most  deficient,  the 
addition  of  nitrogen  will  increase  the  crop;  but  we  may 
reach  a  point  where  a  second  element  is  necessary.  Sup- 
pose that  the  weather  and  all  other  conditions  are  such 
as  to  allow  a  crop  of  100  bushels  of  corn,  but  that  the 
phosphoric  acid   supply  is  so  short  as   to  limit   it  to  70 


MAINTAINING    THE   FERTILITY   OF   THE   LAND       113 

bushels,  and  that  the  nitrogen  supply  limits  it  to  40 
bushels.  The  crop  will  then  be  40  bushels.  In  growing 
such  a  crop,  the  farmer  does  not  make  use  of  all  the  favor- 
able conditions;  his  crop  is  Umited  by  the  ''weakest  link." 
In  such  a  case,  the  addition  of  a  certain  amount  of  nitrogen 
to  the  soil  may  bring  the  yield  up  to  70  bushels.  Then 
the  phosphoric  acid  must  be  added  if  a  greater  yield  is 
to  be  obtained. 

111.  The  Amount  of  Plant-Food  in  the  Soil.  Forty- 
nine  analyses  of  soils  in  different  parts  of  America  showed 
an  average  of  3,000  pounds  of  nitrogen,  over  4,000  pounds 
of  phosphoric  acid  and  over  16,000  pounds  of  potash 
per  acre. 

By  multiplying  the  average  yield  of  crops  (Appendix, 
Table  14)  by  the  composition  (Appendix,  Table  6)  we 
obtain  the  amount  of  food  removed  by  each  crop.  The 
average  wheat  crop  of  the  United  States  for  the  past  ten 
years  (1899  to  1908)  has  been  13.8  bushels.  This,  together 
with  the  straw,  removes  about  14.5  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
10.6  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  14  pounds  of  potash 
per  acre.  The  average  surface  soil  would  therefore  con 
tain  enough  nitrogen  for  200  crops,  phosphoric  acid  for 
400  and  potash  for  1,000.  But  many  soils  do  not  contain 
so  much  plant-food  as  this,  and  in  the  great  majority 
of  cases  the  food  is  too  slowly  available  to  produce 
maximum  crops. 

112.  Value  of  Chemical  Analyses  of  Soils.  The  chemi- 
cal analysis  of  soils  does  not  tell  what  fertiUzers  are 
needed.  The  almost  universal  opinion  is  that  a  chemist 
can  analyze  the  soil  and  tell  what  it  needs.  The  analy- 
sis  may  tell   how  much  food  there  is  in  the  soil,  but  it 


114  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

cannot  tell  how  much  of  this  the  plant  is  able  to  get.  A 
soil  may  contain  enough  phosphoric  acid  for  a  hundred 
crops,  and  yet  the  addition  of  phosphoric  acid  may  be 
beneficial,  because  the  plant  may  be  unable  to  get  this 
food  in  soluble  form. 

A  chemical  analysis  is  of  some  value.  It  shows  the 
maximum  limitations  of  a  soil.  It  is  quite  desirable  to 
know  how  great  a  store  of  the  plant-foods  there  is  in  a 
soil,  in  order  to  provide  a  permanent  agriculture.  If 
there  is  potash  enough  for  a  thousand  years,  we  may  still 
add  it  in  the  fertihzers,  if  it  pays,  but  we  should  certainly 
try  to  find  some  way  of  unlocking  that  which  is  already 
in  the  soil.  But,  if  a  soil  contains  potash  enough  for  only 
50  crops,  we  may  well  plan  to  add  this  food  every  year. 

Some  of  the  peaty  soils  in  Ilhnois  contain  only  enough 
potash  for  41  crops  of  corn,  each  yielding  100  bushels. 
These  soils  give  greatly  increased  yields  when  potash  is 
added.    In  general,  muck  soils  are  deficient  in  potash. 

The  gray  silt  loams  of  southern  Illinois  contain  in  the 
surface  soil  enough  phosphoric  acid  for  70  such  crops  of 
corn,  and  enough  potash  for  1,900  such  crops.  ^  Evi- 
dently one  should  try  to  draw  on  the  supply  of  potash  that 
is  in  the  soil,  and  should  add  phosphoric  acid.  These 
soils  were  once  so  productive  that  southern  lUinois  was 
called  ''Egypt,"  but  they  are  now  very  unproductive. 
By  the  use  of  lime,  phosphoric  acid  and  legumes,  these 
soils  are  easily  made  to  produce  good  crops  once  more. 
Most  of  the  soils  in  Illinois  are  deficient  in  phosphoric 
acid. 

113.  Materials  Used  as  Fertilizers.   The  oldest  and  best 

^Illinois,  Bulletin  No.  123 


MAINTAINING   THE   FERTILITY   OF   THE   LAND       115 

fertilizer  is  barnyard  manure.  Growing  plants  have  also 
been  plowed  under  for  many  centuries.  Usually  these 
plants  have  been  weeds,  but  sometimes  crops  are  sown 
for  the  purpose  of  green-manuring. 

The  Indians  taught  the  first  settlers  in  America  how  to 
grow  corn  and  to  use  fish  as  a  fertilizer. 

''According  to  the  manner  of  the  Indians,  we  manured 
our  ground  with  herrings,  or  rather  shads,  which  we  have 
in  great  abundance  and  take  with  ease  at  our  doors. 

''You  may  see  in  one  township  a  hundred  acres  together 
set  with  these  fish,  every  acre  taking  a  thousand  of  them, 
and  an  acre  thus  dressed  will  produce  and  yield  as  much 
corn  as  three  acres  without,  fish." 

Fish  are  still  in  common  use  along  the  Atlantic  coast, 
and  dried  fish  and  fish  scraps  are  sold  as  fertilizers. 

Salt  (NaCl)  was  sometimes  applied  to  land,  but  this 
is  not  considered  to  be  a  wise  practice  because  it  does  not 
contain  the  elements  that  are  likely  to  be  deficient.  Any 
good  effects  of  salt  are  probably  due  to  chemical  action 
or  to  the  action  of  salt  in  helping  to  dissolve  other  ele- 
ments in  the  soil.  Many  such  substances  have  been  used, 
but  they  are  not  now  used  so  much  as  formerly. 

The  purchased  fertilizers  that  are  most  commonly 
used  are  mixtures  containing  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid, 
and  potash.  The  materials  for  making  these  fertilizers 
are  usually  obtained  from  slaughter-houses,  or  are  mined 
from  the  earth. 

The  use  of  fertilizers  in  the  United  States  has  rapidly 
increased,  and  the  area  on  which  they  are  used  is  con- 
stantly extending  westward.  Little  is  yet  used  west  of  the 
Mississippi  river.    In  1879,  farmers  in  the  United  States 


116  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

spent  $29,000,000  for  fertilizers,  in  1889,  $38,000,000  and 
in  1899,  $55,000,000. 

NITROGEN 

114.  Sources  of  Soil  Nitrogen.  All  soil  nitrogen  comes 
from  the  air.  There  is  no  nitrogen  in  the  rocks  except 
when  these  rocks  contain  the  remains  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals. The  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  usually  decreases 
very  rapidly  with  the  depth.  The  great  inexhaustible 
source  of  nitrogen  is  the  air.  Nearly  four-fifths  of  the  air 
is  nitrogen.  There  are  about  35,000  tons  of  this  gas  over 
every  acre  of  land.  But  no  farm  plants  are  able  to  take  it 
from  the  air  above  ground.  We  may  have  sickly,  yellow 
plants,  starving  to  death  lor  nitrogen  while  immersed  in  this 
inexhaustible  supply.  Since  nitrogen  is  the  most  expensive 
of  the  fertilizing  materials,  costing  about  18  cents  per 
pound  when  purchased  in  commercial  fertilizers,  we  may 
well  be  interested  in  getting  the  supply  in  the  air  into 
compounds  that  are  available  for  the  growth  of  crops. 
At  the  rate  it  must  be  paid  for  in  commercial  fertilizers, 
there  are  some  ten  miUion  dollars'  worth  above  each  acre 
of  land, — if  it  could  be  used! 

115.  Nitrogen  in  Rainfall.  A  small  amount  of  nitrog- 
enous compounds  are  brought  down  with  the  rain  and 
snow.  Usually  this  does  not  amount  to  over  two  or  three 
pounds  per  acre  per  year,  while  about  40  pounds  are  re- 
quired to  produce  a  fair  wheat  crop. 

116.  Nitrogen  Fixation  by  Bacteria  on  Legumes.  Some 
of  the  oldest  writings  refer  to  the  fact  that  pea-like  plants 
have  some  effect  on  the  soil  that  benefits  following  crops. 
Only  in  the  last  fifty  years  has  this  fact  been  explained. 


NITROGEN 


117 


1  2  3 

Fig.  51.  (1)  Wheat  grown  without  nitro- 
gen, all  other  foods  supplied.  (2)  Clover 
grown  without  nitrogen.  (3)  Clover  without 
nitrogen,  but  inoculated  with  legume  bacteria. 


Until  that  time  the  Chinese  explanation  that  ''beans  are 
good  for  the  soil"  was  as  good  as  any. 

In  the  last  fifty  years 
many  investigators  have 
worked  on  the  subject, 
and  it  has  been  demon- 
strated that  when  le- 
gumes have  certain  bac- 
teria present  on  their 
roots  they  are  able  to 
grow  in  soils  that  do  not 
contain  any  nitrogen. 
The  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  in  the  soil  has  been  proved  to 
be  the  source  of  their  supply.  If  the  right  kind  of  bacteria 
are  not  present,  a  legume  cannot  grow  without  nitrogen 
in  the  soil.  No  other  farm  plants  are  able  to  obtain  nitro- 
gen in  this  way  (Fig.  51). 
Peas,  beans,  clover,  alfalfa, 
peanuts  and  vetches  are 
some  of  the  legumes.  Look 
at  the  roots  of  any  of  these 
plants  and  you  will  find 
small  bunches  on  them. 
On  clover  they  are  a  little 
larger  than  a  pinhead  (Fig. 
14),  but  on  beans  the  nod- 
ules are  as  large  as  small 
sweet  peas.  (Fig.  52). 
These  nodules  are  caused 
by  a  certain  kind  of  bac- 

Fig.  52.    Nodules  in  which  the  nitrogen-fix- 
terium  (PseudomonaS  radl-         ing  bacteria  live  on  the  roots  of  a  bean 


118  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

cicola)  that  enters  the  roots  of  the  legume.  These  bacteria 
are  able  to  use  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  soil  air.  After  they 
have  used  the  nitrogen,  it  is  left  in  compounds  that  the 
plant  can  make  use  of,  so  that  a  legume  can  grow  with  no 


Fig.  53.     Nodulea  on  the  roots  of  hairy  vetch 

nitrogen  in  the  soil  it  other  conditions  are  favorable.  The 
legume  roots  furnish  a  home  for  the  bacteria  and  in  return 
are  supplied  with  nitrogen.  These  bacteria  do  not  hve  on 
the  roots  of  any  other  farm  crops. 

Most  soils  contain  the  bacteria,  so  that  all  we  need  to 
do  is  to  sow  the  legume  seed;  but,  if  the  bacteria  are  ab- 
sent, we  must  sow  them  also.  In  much  of  the  eastern  part 
of  the  United  States,  bacteria  need  to  be  suppHed  for 
the  growth  of  alfalfa.  The  best  way  of  supplying  them  is 
to  scatter  a  bushel  or  more  of  soil  from  a  successful  alfalfa 
field  on  each  acre  of  land  that  needs  to  be  inoculated. 
Soy-beans,  cowpeas  and  vetches  often  need  to  be  inocu- 
lated when  they  are  grown  on  a  soil  for  the  first  time. 

Legumes  are  also  able  to  take  nitrogen  from  the  soil 


NITROGEN  119 

compounds  in  the  same  way  that  other  plants  do.  They 
require  much  more  nitrogen  than  other  plants  do,  and 
have  two  ways  of  obtaining  it. 

It  is  very  hard  to  determine  what  proportion  of  the 
nitrogen  in  a  legume  comes  from  the  air  and  what  pro- 
portion comes  from  the  soil.  It  is  certain  that  a  con- 
siderable part  comes  from  the  air  under  usual  farm 
conditions.  One  German  investigator  grew  twenty-eight 
successive  crops  of  lupines  (a  legume)  on  the  same  land 
with  no  nitrogen  added.  But,  in  spite  of  the  removal  of 
these  crops,  the  field  gained  in  nitrogen.  We  can  readily 
see  how  important  it  is  to  have  some  legume  Uke  alfalfa, 
clover,  or  cowpeas  in  a  crop-rotation. 

117.  Fixation  of  Nitrogen  without  Legumes.  During 
the  last  few  years,  a  great  deal  of  attention  has  been 
given  to  legumes  as  a  source  of  nitrogen.  But  the  fixa- 
tion without  legumes  is  probably  a  more  important 
source  of  nitrogen.  Lipman  grew  millet  in  boxes  of  soil 
that  had  been  given  different  treatments.^  In  all  cases, 
the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  was  determined  at  the 
start,  and  that  in  the  soil  and  crop  was  determined  at  the 
end.    A  few  of  his  results  follow: 

(1)  No  fertilizer  used,  no  crop  grown,  soil  kept  bare, 
a  gain  of  1.02  grams  of  nitrogen. 

(2)  No  fertilizer  used,  millet  grown;  slight  gain  of 
nitrogen. 

(3)  One  gram  of  nitrogen  added  to  the  soil  in  the 
form  of  nitrate  of  soda,  millet  grown;  a  gain  of  3.73  grams 
of  nitrogen. 

(4)  One  gram  of  nitrogen  added  in  the  form  of  barn- 

^New  Jersey  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  180 


120  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

yard  manure,  millet  grown;  a  gain  of  10.48  grams  of 
nitrogen. 

The  soil  that  was  kept  bare  contained  a  gram  more 
nitrogen  in  the  fall  than  it  did  in  the  spring.  There  was  a 
slight  gain  when  millet  was  grown.  When  a  gram  of 
nitrogen  was  added  in  the  form  of  nitrate  of  soda,  the  crop 
and  soil  contained  3.73  grams  more  nitrogen  than  were 
present  in  the  fertilizer  and  soil  at  the  beginning.  But, 
when  barnyard  manure  was  used,  there  was  a  gain  of  10.48 
grams — ten  times  as  much  nitrogen  as  was  added  in  the 
manure.  These  gains  came  from  the  air.  The  nitrogen 
was  fixed  by  organisms  acting  independently  of  legumes. 
(Millet  is  not  a  legume.) 

Certain  conditions  greatly  favor  the  activities  of  these 
important  organisms.  The  soil  should  be  well  aerated 
and  drained,  and  it  must  contain  sufficient  lime  and  humus. 
The  striking  results  with  the  barnyard  manure  are  proba- 
bly due  to  the  humus  that  it  contains,  and  perhaps  partly 
due  to  the  organisms  that  it  brings  with  it.  This  partly 
explains  why  fertilizers  alone  cannot  take  the  place  of 
manure. 

118.  Importance  of  Grasses.  Grasses  do  not  have  the 
power  of  obtaining  any  nitrogen  from  the  air,  but  when 
land  is  left  in  sod  there  is  usually  a  considerable  gain  in 
nitrogen.  A  field  at  Rothamsted,  England,  was  left  to 
grow  up  to  weeds  and  grasses  for  twenty  years.  No  legumes 
were  grown  on  it,  but  there  was  a  gain  of  over  forty-four 
pounds  of  nitrogen  per  acre  per  year — enough  to  much  more 
than  grow  a  good  crop  each  year.^ 

Every  farmer  knows  that  a  field  that  has  been  in  sod 
for  a  few  years  produces  much  better  crops  when  it  is 

i-The  Book  of  the  Rothamst«d  Experiments,  by  A.  I).  Hall,  p.  139. 


NITROGEN  121 

plowed  up.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  humus  added  by  the 
decaying  roots,  and  is  undoubtedly  partly  due  to  the 
fixation  of  nitrogen.  Probably  the  humus  has  much  to 
do  with  the  nitrogen  fixation. 

In  the  regions  where  soils  have  been  so  farmed  as  to 
become  unproductive,  the  fields  are  commonly  abandoned 
for  one  or  more  years,  then  they  will  produce  crops  again. 
Where  the  soils  are  not  quite  so  far  exhausted,  one  or  two 
tilled  crops  are  grown  and  are  then  followed  by  hay  a 
few  years,  after  which  small  crops  can  once  more  be  raised. 
The  same  principle  should  be  appHed  in  regular  farming. 
Under  most  conditions,  the  land  should  be  in  sod  one 
to  three  years  out  of  every  five.  The  poorer  the  land,  the 
more  time  it  should  be  in  sod.  If  legumes  can  be  com- 
bined with  this  sod,  so  much  the  better.  The  same  results 
may  be  accomplished  in  other  ways,  as  by  plowing  under 
green-manure  crops. 

119.  Losses  of  Nitrogen  from  Soils.  There  are  other 
organisms  in  the  soil  which  accomplish  the  opposite  re- 
sults. They  act  on  nitrogen  compounds  and  break  them 
up  so  that  the  nitrogen  escapes  into  the  air  as  free  nitro- 
gen. This  is  called  denitrificntion.  When  manure  is  left 
in  loose  piles,  much  of  the  nitrogen  is  lost  by  denitrifica- 
tion. 

Nitrogen  may  also  be  lost  by  being  made  soluble  too 
rapidly,  in  which  case  it  may  leach  out  of  the  soil.  The 
humus  in  a  sandy  soil  is  likely  to  be  burned  out  so  rapidly 
that  the  nitrogen  may  be  lost  in  this  way. 

Soils  in  Minnesota  that  were  kept  continuously  in 
grain  lost  146  pounds  of  nitrogen  by  the  destruction  of 
organic  matter  for  each  25  pounds  that  was  removed  in 


122  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

crops.  ^    It  is  evident  that  these  soils  will  become  unpro- 
ductive if  the  one-crop  system  continues. 

The  better  aerated  the  soil,  the  warmer  the  climate,  and 
the  more  the  land  is  tilled,  the  more  rapidly  the  humus  will 
be  exhausted.  The  ideal  condition  is  to  have  the  humus 
decompose  just  rapidly  enough  to  supply  the  crop  with 
nitrogen.  If  it  burns  out  too  rapidly,  we  may  keep  the 
land  in  sod  more  of  the  time,  apply  manure,  or  plow 
under  crops  to  keep  up  the  humus  supply. 

120.  Forms  of  Nitrogenous  Fertilizers.  Nitrogen  is 
added  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  barnyard  manure,  sodium 
nitrate,  ammonium  sulfate,  potassium  nitrate,  dried 
blood,  tankage,  hoof  meal,  steamed  bone,  dried  fish, 
linseed-oil  meal,  cottonseed  meal,  and  in  a  number  of  other 
forms. 

121.  Nitrate  of  Soda  (NaNOg).  Sodium  nitrate,  or 
Chile  saltpeter,  is  the  most  common  nitrogenous  fertilizer. 
Beds  of  it  occur  along  the  western  coast  of  South  America, 
particularly  in  Peru  and  Chile.  As  it  is  taken  from  the 
earth,  it  contains  about  50  per  cent  of  nitrate  of  soda. 
This  is  purified,  so  that  when  put  on  the  market  it  is  usually 
96  per  cent  pure.  It  contains  an  average  of  about  15.6 
per  cent  of  nitrogen,  and  costs  about  $60  per  ton,  or  about 
19  cents  per  pound  for  the  nitrogen  contained.  This  salt 
is  very  soluble  and  is  in  a  form  that  plants  can  take  up 
at  once.  It  should  be  applied  only  where  plants  will 
soon  make  use  of  it;  otherwise  it  may  leach  out  of  the  soil. 

122.  Ammonium  Sulfate  {^B.^^  ^^4.)-  This  sub- 
stance is  a  by-product  from  the  manufacture  of  gas  and 
coke.     It   contains   about  20  per  cent  of  nitrogen.    The 

1  Minnesota,  Bulletin  No.  53 


PHOSPHORUS  123 

nitrogen  in  this  form  is  a  little  cheaper  than  it  is  in  the 
form  of  sodium  nitrate.  It  is  not  so  desirable  as  the  nitrate 
because  it  tends  to  make  the  soil  acid.  If  used  continu- 
ously, Hme  must  also  be  used  unless  the  soil  is  rich  in 
lime.    Nitrate  of  soda  has  a  slightly  opposite  effect. 

123.  Dried  Blood,  Tankage  and  Bone  Meal  are  products 
from  the  meat-packing  houses.  Tankage  is  made  up  of 
all  kinds  of  waste  material  from  the  slaughter-houses. 
The  names  of  the  others  indicate  their  origin.  They  con- 
tain 5  to  15  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  Good  dried  blood  con- 
tains about  14  per  cent.  These  products  have  to  be  acted 
on  by  soil  bacteria  before  the  nitrogen  is  available  for  crop 
growth.  There  is  less  danger  of  loss  of  nitrogen  than  in 
the  case  of  sodium  nitrate.  These  forms  are  particularly 
desirable  for  fall-sown  crops.  Some  farmers  who  mix 
their  own  fertiUzers  use  about  half  of  the  nitrogen  in  the 
form  of  dried  blood  and  half  in  the  form  of  nitrate  of  soda. 
This  seems  to  be  a  good  practice. 

PHOSPHORUS 

124.  Forms  of  Phosphorus  Fertilizers.  The  chief  forms 
of  phospnorus  fertilizers  are  barnyard  manure,  dissolved 
phosphate  rock,  bone  meal,  dissolved  bone,  tankage, 
Thomas  slag. 

125.  Phosphate  Rock.  This  rock  is  found  in  many 
parts  of  the  United  States,  particularly  in  the  Carolinas, 
Florida  and  Tennessee.  It  is  sometimes  called  South 
Carolina  rock.  The  deposits  are  remains  of  marine  life. 
As  the  rock  is  mined,  it  is  about  50  per  cent  tricalcium 
phosphate    (Gag    (P04)2).     The   rock   is   sometimes   finely 


124  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

ground  and  sold  as  a  fertilizer  under  the  name  ''floats.'* 
There  is  an  increasing  amount  of  floats  used,  particularly 
in  the  central  west,  where  the  soils  contain  considerable 
amounts  of  organic  matter.  But  most  of  the  rock  is 
treated  with  sulfuric  acid  so  as  to  render  it  soluble.  The 
product  is  called  acid  phosphate,  or  dissolved  rock.  In 
this  form  it  contains  about  14  per  cent  of  phosphoric 
acid,^  and  costs  about  $14  per  ton  in  New  York  City. 
When  applied  to  the  soil,  it  reverts  to  the  original  in- 
soluble form.  Being  soluble  when  it  is  applied,  it  is 
distributed  in  the  soil  moisture.  When  it  reverts  it  is 
deposited  on  the  outside  of  innumerable  soil  grains.  This 
gives  a  larger  area  exposed  to  the  action  of  soil  water, 
so  that  it  will  dissolve  and  supply  plants  faster  than  it 
would  in  the  finely  ground  form. 

126.  Bone.  Bones  are  sometimes  finely  ground  to  form 
bone  meal,  or  treated  with  sulfuric  acid  to  form  dissolved 
bone.  They  are  also  used  as  bone  ash,  steamed  bone  meal 
and  bone  black.  The  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  varies 
from  18  to  36  per  cent.  Good  bone  meal  contains  about 
4  per  cent  nitrogen  and  22  per  cent  phosphoric  acid. 

127.  Thomas  Slag.  This  material  is  a  by-product 
from  the  manufacture  of  steel.  It  is  not  used  to  a  very 
great  extent  in  America  at  present.  It  is  not  acid  in  its 
nature  and  so  has  an  advantage  over  acid  phosphate. 
It  is  sometimes  called  "basic  slag." 

iThe  composition  of  phosphatic  fertilizers  is  usually  given  in  terms 
)f  phosphoric  acid  (P2  O5).  Such  a  compoimd  does  not  exist  in  fertilizers, 
3ut  it  furnishes  a  basis  for  comparison.  Phosphoric  acid  costs  about  four 
and  one-half  to  five  cents  per  pound.  The  composition  of  potash  fertilizers 
is  also  expressed  in  terms  of  a  substance  that  does  not  occur  in  the  fertilizers, 
potash  (K5O).  In  both  cases  it  would  be  much  more  desirable  to  have  the 
composition  expressed  in  terms  of  elements,  phosphorus  (P)  and  potassium 
(K).  An  effort  is  now  being  made  to  change  to  this  system,  but  it  has  not 
,  yet  been  generally  adopted. 


POTASSIUM  125 

POTASSIUM 

128.  Forms  of  Potassium  Fertilizers.  The  chief  ferti- 
lizing materials  carrying  potassium  are  barnyard  manure, 
muriate  of  potash  (KCl),  sulfate  of  potash  (K2SO4),  kainit 
and  wood-ashes. 

129.  Kainit,  Muriate  of  Potash  and  Sulfate  of  Potash. 
Kainit  is  mined  in  Germany  in  the  same  way  as  rock-salt. 
It  was  probably  deposited  in  the  same  way.  It  was  while 
trying  to  get  salt  that  kainit  was  found.  It  contains  salt 
and  other  minerals  with  about  12  per  cent  of  potash  (K2O). 
Kainit  is  used  as  a  fertilizer  in  Germany,  but  is  not  much 
used  in  this  country  because  it  contains  too  many  im- 
purities on  which  to  pay  freight. 

Nearly  all  the  potassium  used  in  America  is  potassium 
chlorid,  or  muriate  of  potash  (KCl).  This  is  manufac- 
tured from  the  kainit.  It  contains  about  50  per  cent  of 
potash  (K2O).  It  costs  about  $45  per  ton,  or  about  4.5 
cents  per  pound  of  potash. 

Sulfate  of  potash  (KgSO^)  is  also  manufactured  from 
kainit.  It  costs  about  one  cent  per  pound  more  for  the 
potash  than  in  the  form  of  muriate.  It  is  used  in  cases 
where  the  muriate  is  not  desirable.  The  muriate  usually 
injures  the  quality  of  sugar  beets  and  tobacco. 

130.  Wood-Ashes.  Hardwood-ashes  contain  2  to  10 
per  cent  of  potash  and  average  5  to  6  per  cent.  They 
also  contain  1  to  2  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and  about 
34  per  cent  of  lime  (CaO).  If  the  ashes  are  leached,  most 
of  the  potash  is  removed.  Soft  wood-ashes  contain  less 
potash  than  those  from  hard  wood.  Coal-ashes  contain 
almost   no   plant-food. 


126  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

LIME 

131.  Functions  of  Lime.  Lime  is  usually  spoken  of 
as  a  soil  amendment  rather  than  as  a  plant-food,  because 
its  chief  value  when  added  to  the  soil  does  not  seem  to 
be  as  a  plant-food.  A  deficiency  of  hme  in  the  soil  seems 
to  show  in  other  ways  before  there  is  really  a  shortage 
of  lime  as  food.  Lime  helps  to  improve  the  physical  con- 
dition of  some  soils.  It  corrects  acidity.  It  helps  to  liber- 
ate other  plant-foods.  Perhaps  its  most  important  effect 
is  its  influence  on  soil  organisms.  If  there  is  not  sufficient 
lime  in  the  soil,  the  fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen 
cannot  go  on  properly,  nor  can  the  Hberation  of  nitrogen 
from  the  humus.  The  addition  of  lime  to  the  soil  so  favors 
the  preparation  of  nitrogen  food  that  its  effect  is  often  the 
same  as  the  addition  of  nitrogen.  If  a  soil  is  deficient 
in  Hme  it  is  unwise  to  go  on  farming  it  until  this  deficiency 
has  been  corrected.  The  other  fertilizers  or  barnyard 
manure  cannot  be  used  most  economically  if  there  is  not 
sufficient  lime.  On  the  other  hand  lime  does  not  take  the 
place  of  these  fertilizing  materials. 

132.  Relation  of  Crops  to  Lime.  There  is  a  very  decided 
difference  in  the  lime  requirements  of  different  crops. 
Alfalfa  and  clover  need  more  lime  than  do  any  of  the 
other  common  farm  crops.  (See  Fig.  97.)  These  may 
show  a  benefit  from  the  use  of  lime  when  timothy,  corn 
and  wheat  are  not  helped.  Timothy  may  fail  for  lack  of 
lime  where  red-top  thri\es.  Alfalfa,  clover,  lettuce,  beets", 
cantaloupes,  onions,  timothy  are  more  sensitive  to  acid 
conditions  than  are  soy-beans,  cowpeas,  red-top  and 
watermelons. 


LIME 


12T 


133.  How  to  Tell  the  Need  of  Lime.  One  of  the  most 
common  indications  of  the  need  of  hme  is  the  failure  of 
red  clover  on  soils  where  it  once  grew.  This  is  generally 
due  to  the  exhaustion  of  lime.  If  red  clover  fails  and 
red-top  thrives  we  should  certainly  make  a  test  of 
hme.  Clover  sometimes  fails  because  of  the  root-borer^ 
but,  in  this  case,  it  does  not  fail  until  it  has  produced  the 
first  crop  of  hay.  In  some  regions  it  fails  because  of  disease 
(anthracnose),  but,  in  this  case,  it  makes  a  good  growth 
until  the  disease  attacks  it.  If  clover  and  alfalfa  produce 
good  crops,  lime  will  not  be  needed.  An  easy  test  for  the 
need  of  lime  is  to  lay  off  a  plot 

four  rods  square  in  the  field. 
Apply  a  bushel  of  Hme  on  half  of 
the  plot  and  apply  manure  on 
half  of  it  in  the  other  direction. 
We  then  have  lime  and  manure 
alone  and  together  as  compared 
with  no  treatment.  The  hme  is 
likely  to  have  a  greater  effect 
the  second  year. 

134.  Forms  of  Lime.  Lime 
occurs  in  the  earth  as  limestone  rock  or  calcium  carbonate 
(CaCOg).  When  this  is  burned,  carbon  dioxid  (COg)  is 
given  off  and  we  have  left  quicklime  (CaO).  This  is  the 
lime  that  is  used  in  plastering.  When  this  Hme  is  w^ater- 
slaked  to  form  plaster,  it  takes  up  water  and  we  have 
calcium  hydrate,  waterslaked  lime,  or  hydrated  lime  (Ca 
(OH)j^.  When  this  is  put  on  the  walls  as  plaster  it  dries 
out  and  becomes  white.  As  it  loses  water,  it  takes  up  car- 
bon  dioxid   from   the   air  and  the   calcium   carbonate   is 


LI 

ME 

> 

a 

Fig.  54.     Experiment  to  deter- 
mine whether  lime  is  needed 


128  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

again  formed.  When  quicklime  air-slakes  it  also  takes  up 
carbon  dioxid  from  the  air.  Similar  changes  take  place 
when  it  is  used  on  the  soil. 

QuickUme,  calcium  oxid  (CaO)  is  the  most  common 
form  of  lime  used  for  agricultural  purposes.  Usually  a 
poorer  grade  is  used  than  for  plastering.  When  this  is 
applied  to  soil,  the  same  changes  take  place  as  in  the 
case  of  plastering.  The  lump  lime  is  sometimes  finely 
ground  so  that  it  can  be  applied  by  machinery.  Limestone 
rock  is  sometimes  finely  ground  and  is  applied  to  the  soil. 
Some  firms  slake  the  lime  with  water  and  sell  the  hydrated 
lime.    This  is  also  a  powder. 

Fifty-six  pounds  of  quicklime  (CaO)  are  equal  to  74 
pounds  of  hydrated  lime,  or  to  100  pounds  of  ground 
limestone  or  air-slaked  Ume. 

The  quicklime,  or  hydrated  lime,  should  not  be  applied 
within  a  week  of  the  time  of  planting  crops,  because  it 
is  sometimes  so  caustic  as  to  injure  young  plants. 

Ashes  contain  about  one-third  lime. 

Gypsum  or  land  plaster  (CaSO^)  also  contains  lime,  but 
it  is  not  so  good  as  other  forms  because  it  contains  sulfuric 
acid.    The  use  of  it  is  rapidly  decreasing. 

135.  Application  of  Lime.  From  500  pounds  to  one 
ton  (6  to  30  bushels)  per  acre  is  usually  enough  to  apply 
at  one  time.  The  application  may  need  to  be  repeated  in 
a  few  years.  Formerly  much  larger  appUcations  were 
made.  There  are  many  conflicting  reports  as  to  the  benefit 
of  lime.  Many  regions  have  taken  it  up,  dropped  it,  and 
later  come  to  use  it  once  more.  The  explanation  is  that 
with  the  amounts  applied  there  was  enough  to  last  a  con- 
siderable  time. 


COMPLETE  FERTILIZERS  129 


COMPLETE   FERTILIZERS 


136.  Cost,  Valuation  and  Analyses.  Fertilizers  that 
are  purchased  by  farmers  are  usually  made  up  of  a  mixture 
of  some  of  the  materials  previously  described.  Such  fer- 
tilizers usually  contain  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash.  They  are  commonly  used  without  much  regard 
for  the  needs  of  crops  on  the  particular  soil. 

They  are  subject  to  inspection  in  a  number  of  states 
and  must  be  labeled  with  the  per  cent  of  each  plant-food 
that  they  contain.  In  Vermont,  in  1908,  the  result  of  this 
inspection  showed  that  the  average  selling  price  of  mixed 
fertiUzers  was  $31.24  per  ton,  but  the  materials  for  mixing 
them  could  have  been  purchased  at  retail  in  Boston  or 
New  York  for  $20.75.  Evidently  there  is  a  considerable 
loss  to  farmers  in  purchasing  complete  fertilizers.  Not 
only  are  the  fertiUzers  likely  to  be  ill  adapted  to  their 
needs,  but  the  prices  are  too  high.  The  difference  between 
$20.75  and  $31.24  per  ton  covers: 

(1)  The  cost  of  mixing. 

(2)  Cost  of  transportation. 

(3)  Storage,   commission  to  agents,   dealers,  etc. 

(4)  Selling  on  credit,  and  bad  debts. 

A  careful  farmer  should  always  avoid  the  last  two 
expenses,  so  far  as  possible. 

At  the  average  retail  prices  in  New  York  City  in  1908, 
nitrogen  cost  18^  cents,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  each 
cost  4^  cents  per  pound.  The  farmers  have  paid  much 
more  than  these  prices.  According  to  the  figures  above 
they  must  have  paid  25  cents  per  pound  for  nitrogen  and 
6  cents  for  potash  and  for  phosphoric  acid. 


130  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

A  fertilizer  containing  2  per  cent  nitrogen,  10  per  cent 
phosphoric  acid  and  8  per  cent  potash  is  often  spoken  of 
as  a  2,  10,  8  (two,  ten,  eight)  fertiUzer. 

An  approximate  way  to  estimate  the  value  of  a  fer- 
tilizer in  dollars  per  ton  is  to  multiply  the  per  cent  of 
nitrogen  by  four  and  add  the  per  cents  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash.  This  estimates  nitrogen  at  20  cents  per 
pound  and  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  at  5  cents  each 
per  pound.  (Prove  this  rule.)  These  are  higher  than  the 
New  York  prices,  but  lower  than  the  farmers  pay  for 
complete  fertilizers,  and  allow  a  considerable  margin  for 
freight.  A  2,  10,  8  fertilizer  would  therefore  be  worth 
approximately  4X2+10+8=$26  per  ton. 

The  labels  on  fertilizer  bags  are  often  confusing,  and 
are  doubtless  intended  to  be  so.  The  following  is  a  copy 
of  such  a  label,  and  at  the  right  are  the  facts  reduced  to 
their  simplest  terms: 

Per  cent 

Nitrogen 0.82-  1.64 

Nitrogen  as  ammonia    1.00-  2.00 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid 6.00-  7  00 

Reverted  phosphoric  acid 2.00-  3.00 

Insoluble  phosphoric  acid 1.00-  2.00 

Total  phosphoric  acid 10.00-12.00 

Bone  phosphate  of  Hme 22.00-25.00 

Available  bone  phosphate  of  lime  .  .  18.00-20.00 

Available  phosphoric  acid 8.00-10.00 

Potash 4.00-  5.00 

Equivalent  to  sulfate  of  potash 8.00-10.00 


Per  cent 
Nitrogen 0.82 

Available     phos- 
phoric acid  .  .  .8.00 
Potash 4.00 


The  higher  percentages  in  the  guarantee  mean  nothing. 
A  guarantee  of  4  to  5  per  cent  of  potash  is  a  guarantee 
of  4  per  cent;  it  would  be  the  same  if  it  said  4  to  50  per  cent. 
Nor  do  the  numerous  equivalents  mean  anything,  except 
for  comparison,  as  that  .82  per  cent  of  nitrogen  is  equiva- 
lent to   1   per  cent  of  ammonia. 


COMPLETE   FERTILIZERS  131 

Farmers  are  also  likely  to  be  misled  by  the  names 
applied  to  the  fertilizers,  as  potato  specials,  corn  specials, 
etc.  One  firm  in  Vermont  sold  three  kinds  of  fertilizer 
under  thirty-three  different  names!  One  firm  in  New 
York  sells  two  grass  fertilizers,  one  analyzing  1,  7,  2,  and 
one  9,  6,  6.  They  must  be  for  different  kinds  of  grass, 
or  more  likely  they  are  for  two  different  kinds  of  farmers. 
The  former  fertilizer  is  cheap,  thus  pleasing  some  persons, 
the  latter  is  adapted  to  grass,  thus  pleasing  others. 

137.  Home  Mixing  of  Fertilizers.  It  is  not  a  difficult 
matter  to  mix  fertilizers  at  home.  The  proper  proportions 
may  be  put  together  on  a  tight  barn-floor  and  be  shoveled 
over  a  few  times.  If  any  of  the  ingredients  are  lumpy, 
these  should  be  put  in  first  and  the  lumps  crushed.  Fer- 
tilizer agents  argue  that  the  mixing  is  better  done  at  the 
factories.  This  may  be  true,  but  field  experiments  have 
shown  that  the  home-mixed  ones  produce  as  good  crops 
and  are  much  cheaper.  Sometimes  a  grange  purchases 
enough  materials  for  a  carload  or  more  of  fertilizer.  The 
mixing  is  then  done  at  the  factories  at  little  or  no  expense. 

Suppose  that  it  is  desired  to  make  ten  tons  of  a  2,  7,  8 
fertihzer.  How  much  nitrate  of  soda  (15.5  per  cent),  acid- 
phosphate  (14  per  cent)  and  muriate  of  potash  (50  per 
cent)  will  be  required?  This  will  require  20,000  X  .02  = 
400  pounds  of  nitrogen,  20,000 X. 07=1, 400  pounds  phos- 
phoric acid  and  similarly  1,600  pounds  of  potash.  To 
furnish  these  amounts  will  require: 

400h-0.155=  2,581  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda 
1,400h-0.14  =10,000  pounds  of  acid  phosphate 
1,600-^-0.50  =  3,200  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash 

15,781 


132  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

This  lacks  4,219  pounds  of  weighing  ten  tons,  but  it 
has  all  the  plant-food  called  for.  One  can  put  in  this  much 
dirt  for  filler,  but  it  would  be  simpler  to  merely  use  three- 
fourths  as  much  per  acre  as  was  planned.  If  such  a  fer- 
tilizer were  purchased  ready-made,  one  would  have  to 
pay  freight  on  this  much  useless  material. 

138.  How  to  Determine  What  Fertilizer  to  Use.  Grass 
crops  and  most  crops  whose  yield  depends  on  the  total 
vegetative  growth,  are  more  likely  to  need  nitrogen  than 
are  ordinary  crops.  On  the  Cornell  University  farms, 
fertilizers  gave  little  benefit  when  used  on  oats,  corn  or 
wheat,  but,  when  nitrate  of  soda  was  applied  on  timothy, 
i<  increased  the  yield  from  one  and  one-half  to  three  and 
three-fourths  tons  per  acre.    (See  Fig.  55.) 

Leguminous  crops  are  more  likely  to  need  phosphoric 
acid,  potash  and  lime  than  are  other  crops.   (See  Fig.  97.) 

If  Ume  is  needed,  phosphoric  acid  is  also  very  likely 
to  be  needed,  because  most  of  the  available  phosphorus 
is  in  combination  with  lime.^  There  may,  however,  be  plenty 
of  lime  and  not  enough  phosphorus,  for  the  great  store- 
house of  lime  is  limestone. 

In  a  general  way  we  may  say  that  nitrogen  promotes 
leafiness,  while  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  have  more 
to  do  with  seed-production.  This  may  help  in  determin- 
ing what  fertilizer  to  try,  but  must  not  be  relied  upon  too 
much. 

More  important  than  any  of  these  points  is  the  value 
of  the  crop.  High-priced  crops  may  be  profitably  ferti- 
Uzed  when  it  would  be  folly  to  fertilize  low-priced  ones. 
A  truck  crop  may  be  worth  $200  per  acre  on  the  same  farm 
where  a  corn  crop  is  worth  $20.    If  a  certain  fertilizer 

1  Wisconsin  Research  Itnllpfin  I. 


Nothing 
,590  ll)s.  hay  i»or  aero 


(VK)  ll)H.  nitrate  Hoda 

32()  acid  phosphate 

HO  muriate  potaHh 

7,590  Ibj.  hay  per  acre 


3'->(l  lbs.  nitrate  Hoda 

320  acid  ph«)sphate 

K)  muriate  potash 

7,110  lbs.  hay  per  acre 


Fio.  55.    Timothy  hay  responds  to  fertihzers,  particularly  nitrate  of  soda 


I^M 

k.il 

.jii 

1 

l^^Ei^.^_^^^^^B 

P* 

N^ 

ll 

1 

1  ^^^^^^^^HR^^wT!^ 

w 

1 

pn 

■ 

I^^^^HpHIV' 

▼ 

T 

*>.-/<^  ,.. 

^ 

"->-^i:A 

«^^ 

tej 

■i 

^.. ......  J 

■ 

■i 

H 

20  tons  manure 
7,420  lbs.  hay  per  acre 


10  tons  manurrt 
4.359  lbs.  hay  per  acre 


Nothing 
2,230  lbs.  hay  per  aore 


Fio.  5b     Timothy  hay  responds  to  barnyard  manure 


COMPLETE   FERTILIZERS 


133 


will  increase  each  crop  10  per  cent  it  will  mean  a  gain  of 
$2  per  acre  on  the  corn  and  $20  per  acre  on  the  truck. 
One  might  pay  $10  for  such  a  fertiUzer  if  he  is  raising 
truck  crops,  but  could  not  afford  to  use  it  on  corn. 


Fig.  57.     The  crop  to  be  grown  is  as  important  as  the  soil,  when  deciding  on  a 
fertiUzer.    Floats  are  of  little  value  for  oats  but  best  for  rape.    (See  Fig.  58) 

Contrary  to  the  common  opinion,  fertiUzers  are  usually 
not  profitable  on  very  poor  land.  Such  land  usually  needs 
humus,  and  often  needs  other  treatment  before  it  will 
pay  to  use  fertilizers.  About  forty  farmers  in  New  York 
have  reported  trials  of  nitrate  of  soda  for  the  production 


Fig.  58.     Rape  is  best  with  floats.    Compare  with  Fig.  57 

of  timothy  hay.  In  very  few  cases  has  it  paid  if  the  field 
did  not  yield  at  least  one  and  one-fourth  tons  when  un- 
treated, and  in  very  few  cases  did  it  fail  to  pay  when  the 
unfertiHzed  area  yielded   over  one   and   one-fourth   tons. 


134  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

It  seems  to  be  very  nearly  as  easy  to  double  a  yield  of 
one  and  one-half  tons  as  to  double  a  yield  of  one-half  ton. 
In  the  former  case,  the  gain  will  be  three  times  as  much 
as  in  the  latter. 

The  profitableness  of  a  fertihzer  is  very  much  a  matter 
of  season.  In  general,  the  best  results  are  secured  in 
favorable  seasons.  A  fertihzer  that  pays  in  a  good  season 
may  not  pay  in  a  season  of  deficient  rainfall. 

In  deciding  on  a  fertilizer  practice  to  be  followed,  one 
should  consult  the  State  Experiment  Station  to  learn 
whether  there  are  any  fundamental  deficiencies  of  the 
soils  of  the  region.  ''On  practically  all  Ohio  soils  that 
have  been  for  any  length  of  time  in  cultivation — possibly 
excepting  the  mucks — phosphorus  must  be  supplied  be- 
fore the  maximum  yield  of  any  crop  can  be  attained. 
The  longer  the  land  has  been  in  cultivation  the  greater 
the  need  of  phosphorus,  but  many  comparatively  new 
soils  will  respond  to  it."^  Phosphoric  acid  seems  to  be 
deficient  in  nearly  all  of  the  soils  from  the  Appalachian 
mountains  to  the  Mississippi  river. 

After  one  has  obtained  all  the  public  information 
•concerning  the  region  it  is  best  to  make  trials  of  the  most 
likely  combinations  on  small  areas  of  the  farm.  For 
this  purpose,  we  should  select  as  uniform  a  place  in  the 
field  as  possible,  and  one  that  is  neither  better  nor  poorer 
than  the  average.  Even  such  trials  must  be  accepted  with 
caution.  For  instance,  at  the  Ohio  Station,  where  trials 
have  been  conducted  on  the  same  land  for  fourteen  years, 
the  first  season  was  abnormal ;  potash  gave  an  increase 
in  yield  of  wheat  and  phosphoric  acid  decreased  the  yield. 

lOhio.  Circular  No.  79 


BARNYARD   MANURE  135 

But  all  the  later  years  have  shown  that  phosphorus  was 
most  needed  and  potash  least  needed. 


BARNYARD  MANURE 

139.  Importance  of  Manure.  Over  half  a  century  ago 
a  French  scientist  declared  that  one  of  the  most  important 
lessons  for  the  farmer  to  learn  was  how  to.  produce  good 
barnyard  manure  and  to  use  it  rationally;  that  the  funda- 
mental question  was  and  would  remain  the  manure  ques- 
tion. The  older  our  farm  lands  become,  the  more  truth 
we  see  in  his  statement.  In  many  parts  of  America  the 
manure  is  thrown  away.  In  regions  where  thousands  of 
dollars  are  spent  for  fertilizers,  a  half  of  the  value  of 
manure  is  usually  lost  before  it  is  applied  to  the  land. 

Figured  at  the  price  that  the  plant-food  in  manure 
would  cost  in  fertilizers,  the  amount  produced  in  the 
United  States  is  worth  $2,353,000,000^  per  year.  The  value 
of  the  corn  crop  in  1908  was  about  two-thirds  this 
amount,  $1,601,000,000. 

140.  Value  of  Manure.  The  value  of  manure  is  often 
figured  on  the  basis  of  what  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  would  cost  if  purchased  in  commercial 
fertiUzers.  The  plant-food  in  manure  is  less  soluble  than 
that  in  fertilizers ;  on  the  other  hand,  this  method  does 
not  give  any  value  to  the  humus,  which  is  a  very  important 
part  of  the  manure.  Field  trials  usually  show  that  this 
is  a  fair  method  of  comparison  with  fertilizers,  particu- 
larly when  the  lasting  effects  are  considered.  Truck- 
growers  in  New  Jersey,  who  buy  both  manure  and  ferti- 

iFarmers'  Bulletin  N<i.  192,  p.  5 


136  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

lizers,  pay  much  more  for  the  plant-food  in  manure  than 
they  have  to  pay  for  it  in  the  fertiHzers.  They  feel  that 
they  must  have  the  manure,  even  if  it  is  more  expen- 
sive. Sometimes  they  dispense  with  manure  when  they 
can  plow  under  clover. 

The  price  at  which  manure  can  be  purchased  is  quite 
variable.  In  parts  of  the  West  a  man  is  paid  to  haul  it 
away  to  get  rid  of  it.  Farmers  in  New  Jersey  purchase  it 
by  the  carload  from  Philadelphia  and  New  York  at  about 
$2.50  per  ton,  and  there  is  still  the  expense  of  hauling  to 
the  farms.  In  many  of  the  smaller  cities  of  the  East,  it 
can  be  had  for  the  hauling,  in  others,  it  must  be  paid  for. 

How  much  manure  is  worth  on  a  given  farm  depends 
on  how  much  it  is  needed.  It  may  be  worth  more  or  less 
than  the  fertility  in  it  would  cost  in  fertilizers. 

Seventy-nine  analyses  of  manure  and  bedding  at  the 
Massachusetts  Experiment  Station  gave  an  average  of 
66  per  cent  water,  0.45  per  cent  nitrogen,  0.33  per  cent 
phosphoric  acid,  0.56  per  cent  potash.  This  is  practically 
one-half  per  cent  of  nitrogen  and  potash,  and  one-third 
per  cent  phosphoric  acid.  The  plant-food  in  a  ton  of  such 
manure  would  cost  about  $2.83  (4X^  +  J+J). 

At  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station,  each  ton  of  manure 
gave  $2.58  worth  of  hay  and  oats  in  three  years  above 
the  value  from  the  untreated  land.  In  one  three-year  rota- 
tion of  wheat,  clover,  potatoes  in  Ohio,  each  ton  of  ma- 
nure gave  $2.96  worth  of  increased  crops.  In  each  case, 
there  will  be  a  considerable  benefit  from  the  manure  on 
later  crops,  as  the  good  effects  of  manure  are  not  all 
gone  in  three  years. 

Experiments    at    Rothamsted,    England,    during    fifty 


BARNYARD   MANURE 


137 


years  on  land  unmanured,  manured  continuously,  and 
manured  during  the  first  twenty  years  only,  showed  a 
gradual  decrease  in  the  crop  on  the  unmanured  soil  and  a 
gradual  increase  from  year  to  year  on  the  manured  soil. 
When  the  application  was  stopped  there  was  a  gradual 


Pounds  of  grain  per  acre 
6,000 


5.000 


4,000 


3,000 


2,000 


1,000 


1852-1871  1872-1881  1882-1891  1892-1901 

Fig.  59.     Effects  of  barnyard  manure  on  the  yield  of  barley — ten-year  averages. 
■BBlHi  Manured  every  year. 

^===:  Manured  every  year  until    1871,  but  no  manure   since    that    date. 
==  No  manure  since   1852. 

Thirty  years  after  the  last  application  of  manure  to  the  second  plot  it  still 
gave  a  ten-year  average  yield  double  that  of  the  unmanured. 

decrease,  but,  at  the  end  of  thirty  years  after  the  last 
application,  the  yield  was  still  double  that  on  the  unma- 
nured part.^    (See  Fig.  59.) 

^The  Book  of  the  Rothamsted  Experiments,  by  A.  D.  Hall.  p.  7ft 


138  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

141.  Factors  Influencing  the  Value  of  Manure.  Young 
animals,  poor  animals,  those  producing  a  rich  product, 
as  milk,  or  those  doing  hard  work,  usually  digest  their 
food  more  fully,  so  that  the  manure  is  less  valuable.  If 
the  food  is  rich,  the  manure  is  improved.  The  manure 
of  different  animals  differs  in  value.  That  from  poultry 
is  most  valuable.  Sheep  manure  is  more  valuable  than 
cow  manure,  chiefly  because  it  is  drier.  The  character 
of  bedding  also  influences  the  value  of  manure.  Sawdust 
and  shavings  are  of  no  value,  so  that  if  they  are  used  the 
manure  is  not  so  valuable  as  when  straw  is  used.  If  the 
liquid  portion  is  lost,  if  it  ferments,  or  if  it  leaches,  the 
manure  will  be  less  valuable. 

142.  Fertilizing  Value  of  Food  and  of  Manure.  From 
65  to  75  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
fed  to  cows  is  recovered  in  the  manure,  with  fattening 
animals  85  to  95  per  cent  is  recovered.  (See  page  153.) 
In  general,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  three-fourths  of  the 
fertility  in  the  feed  is  recovered  in  the  manure.  This, 
of  course,  assumes  that  the  liquid  portion  is  saved  and 
that  leaching  and  other  losses  are  prevented. 

This  fact  has  an  important  bearing  on  farm  manage- 
ment. Cottonseed  meal,  dried  blood  and  tankage  are  used 
as  fertiUzers  and  as  feed.  The  meal  is  fed  to  cattle.  The 
dried  blood  and  tankage  are  fed  to  hogs  and  poultry. 
It  is  usually  more  profitable  to  feed  these  to  animals  and 
use  the  manure  on  the  land  rather  than  purchase  fertil- 
izers. In  general,  it  is  more  profitable  to  purchase  fertility 
as  feed  for  stock  than  to  buy  it  in  a  fertihzer  bag.  A 
good  many  eastern  farmers  feed  sheep  and  beef  cattle 
not  so  much  for  the  profit  that  the  animals  give  directly  as 


BARNYARD  MANURE 


139 


for  the  manure  that  they  produce.  Even  in  new  countries 
it  is  well  to  consider  the  question  of  feeding  grain  to 
animals  rather  than  selUng  it.  If  the  stock  can  be  made 
to  pay  nearly  as  well  as  grain  selling,  it  is  to  be  preferred 
on  account  of  the  greater  crops  that  can  be  secured  in 
the  future. 

143.  Amount  and  Value  of  Manure  Produced  by  Farm 
Animals.  A  1,200-pound  horse  will  produce  about  eleven 
tons  of  excrement  per  year,  which,  together  with  the 
bedding,  will  make  about  fourteen  tons  of  manure.  A 
cow  produces  about  the  same  amount.  Steers  fed  at  the 
Ohio  Station  averaged  at  the  rate  of  nine  tons  per  year. 
An  equal  weight  of  sheep  produces  fewer  tons,  but  the 
manure  is  drier,  so  that  about  the  same  amount  of  plant- 
food  is  produced.  A  fairly  safe  rule  for  any  stock  except 
sheep,  poultry  and  hogs  is  to  count  one  ton  per  month 
for  each  1,000  pounds  of  animals  kept.  To  purchase  an 
equal  amount  of  plant-food  in  fertilizers  would  cost  about 
$40  per  year.  The  following  table  gives  results  procured 
by  Roberts: 

Manure  Per  1,000  Pounds  of  Live  Weight 


Excrement 
per  year 


Horse 
Cow. . 
Sheep 
Calf.  . 
Pig.. 
Fowls 


Tons 

8.9 
13.5 

6.2 
12.4 
15.3 

4.3 


Manure 

with 
bedding 
per  year 


Tons 
12.1 
14.6 

9.6 
14.8 
18.2 

4.3 


Nitrogen 
per  year 


Lbs. 

153 
137 
175 
150 
331 
293 


Phosphoric 

Acid 

per  year 


Lbs. 

81 

92 

88 

105 

i58 

119 


Potash 
per  year 


Lbs. 
150 
140 
133 
102 
130 
72 


Value 
per  year'' 


$42  15 

39  00 
46  05 

40  35 
80  60 
68  15 


iThe  nitrogen  is  figured  at  20  cents  and  the  other  constituents  at  5 
cents  per  pound. 


140 


ELEMENTS    OF   AGTRICULTURE 


The  amount  of  manure  produced  must  be  considered 
in  planning  a  cropping  system  for  a  farm.  If  one  wishes 
to  manure  one-fifth  of  the  land  every  year  with  10  tons 
per  acre,  there  would  have  to  be  provided  two  tons  per 
year  for  each  acre  of  the  farm.  This  would  require  about 
one  cow  or  horse,  or  equivalent,  for  each  six  acres  of  land. 
Enough  more  stock  would  have  to  be  kept  to  make  up 
for  time  on  the  pasture,  provided  the  pasture  were  not 
a  part  of  the  crop-rotation. 

144.  Losses  of  Manure.  The  great  sources  of  loss  of 
manure  are  the  loss  of  the  liquid  portion,-  the  leaching 
out  of  the  fertihty  by  rains,  and  fermentation. 

The  liquid  portion  of  manure  is  much  more  valuable 
per  ton  than  is  the  solid  portion,  as  it  contains  over  twice 
as  much  nitrogen  and  most  of  the  potash.  The  relative 
composition  of  the  solid  and  the  liquid  portions  is  as 
follows:^ 


Horse — 

Liquid  manure 
Solid  manure. . 

Cow — 

Liquid  manure 
Solid  manure. . 


Nitrogen 


Per  cent 
1.52 
0.56 

1.05 
0.44 


Phosphoric 
Acid 


Per  cent 
0. 

0.35 

0. 
0.12 


Potash 


Per  cent 
0.92 

0.10 

1.36 
0.04 


Value 
per  ton 


$7  00 
2  69 

5  56 
1  92 


With  COWS,  over  one-fourth  of  the  total  excrement  is 
liquid.  This  is  worth  about  as  much  as  the  soUd  manure. 
Yet  many  farmers  have  arranged  their  barns  so  as  to 
drain  off  the  liquid  portion.  In  this  way  it  is  easy  to  lose 
fertilizing  material  that  would  cost  $10  to  $15  per  year 

I  Experiment  Station  Record  V.  p.  142. 


BARNYARD   MANURE 


141 


for  each  cow  kept.  Straw,  or  some  other  absorbing  ma- 
terial, should  be  used  so  freely  that  none  of  the  liquid 
is  lost.  It  is  also  desirable  to  have  cement  gutters  in 
cow  barns. 

If  the  manure  is  exposed  to  heavy  rains,  the  results 
are  still  more  serious,  as  the  drainage  from  a  manure  heap 
is  even  more  valuable  than  the  liquid  manure:^ 


Liquid  from  cow  gutter  .... 
Drainage  from  manure  heap 


Nitrogen 


Per  cent 

0.98 
1.50 


Phosphoric 
Acid 


Per  cent 
0.24 
0.10 


Potash 


Per  cent 

0.88 
4.90 


Roberts^  exposed  4,000  pounds  of  manure  from  April 
25  to  September  22.  At  the  end  of  this  time  there  were 
only  1,730  pounds: 


April  25 


September  22 


Loss 


Weight 

Nitrogen    

Phosphoric  acid, 

Potash 

Value 


4,000.00  lbs. 
19.60  lbs. 
14.80  lbs. 
36.00  lbs. 
$6.46 


,730.00  lbs. 

7.79  lbs. 

7.79  lbs. 

8.65  lbs. 

$2.38 


% 
57 
60 
47 
76 
63 


Not  only  was  there  a  loss  of  63  per  cent  of  the  value 
of  the  plant-food,  but  the  loss  in  weight  was  due  mostly 
to  loss  of  organic  matter,  which  should  have  been  saved 
to  make  humus.  At  the  New  Jersey  Station,  manure 
exposed  for  four  months  lost  over  half  of  its  value.* 

Farmers  usually  fail  to  appreciate  this  loss,  because 

^Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  I,  p.  491. 
'I.  P.  Roberts,  The  Fertilit>y  of  the  Land,  p.  192. 
3Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  192,  p.  20. 


142  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

a  ton  of  well-rotted  manure  is  worth  more  than  a  ton 
of  fresh  manure.  The  trouble  is  that  after  exposure  there 
are  so  few  tons.  One  farmer  who  looked  over  these  figures 
remarked  that  he  hauled  200  loads  of  manure  to  a  pile 
beside  a  field  in  the  spring,  and  that  when  he  came  to 
spread  it  in  the  fall,  he  had  60  loads. 


$2.15 


$2.96 


$4.80 


Manure  exposed  in  yard. 


Stail  manure. 


Stall  manure  and  acid  phosphate. 

Fig.  60.  Relative  values  of  crops  grown  from  stall  manure  and  from  an  equa? 
quantity  of  manure  left  exposed  in  yard  and  from  stall  manure  reinforced  witfcl 
23  cents'  worth  of  acid  phosphate  per  ton. 

At  the  Ohio  Station,  manure  exposed  three  months 
in  an  open  barnyard  lost  one-third  of  its  fertilizing  value. 
This  manure  was  used  on  crops  and  was  found  to  be  27 
per  cent  less  effective  than  the  same  amount  of  manure 
that  had  not  been  thus  exposed  (Fig.  60).  As  manure  is 
exposed  under  the  eaves  in  barnyards,  it  certainly  loses 
much  more  than  half  of  its  value.  But  merely  being 
under  cover  is  not  a  sure  preventive  of  loss.  Unless  it  is 
kept  moist  and  compact,  it  will  ferment,  and  a  large  part 
of  the  nitrogen  will  pass  off  into  the   air. 

The  ideal  way  to  care  for  manure  is  to  spread  it  on 
the  land  as  fast  as  it  is  made.  One  can  keep  a  wagon  or 
manure-spreader  on  which  the  manure  is  thrown  each  day. 
When  a  load  is  ready,  it  is  hauled  to  the  field  and  spread 
at  once.  This  is  not  so  difficult  as  at  first  appears.  It 
saves  the  labor  of   handling  the  manure   twice, — once  to 


BARNYARD  MANURE 


143 


throw  it  out  of  the  barn,  and  once  to  put  it  on  the 
wagon.  When  the  tilled  land  is  all  in  crops,  it  can  be  spread 
on  the  pastures  or  meadows,  so  that  there  is  nearly 
always  a  place  to  put  it. 

If  manure  cannot  be  hauled  in  this  manner,  the  next 
best  way  is  to  have  a  covered  barnyard  or  shed  where  all 
the  manure  is  put  and  in  which  stock  is  kept.  The  stock 
will  pack  the  manure  and  keep  it  moist — conditions  that 


Fig.  61. 


Manure  exposed  under  the  eaves  where  it  loses  30  to 
cent  of  its  value 


are  essential  for  preserving  it.  If  it  is  kept  tramped  and 
moist,  and  if  the  shed  has  a  cement  floor,  there  will  be 
practically  no  loss.  A  cement  floor  under  steers  in  Ohio 
was  half  paid  for  in  one  year  by  the  saving  of  manure. 
When  manure  is  kept  in  this  way,  it  should  be  hauled 
out  during  the  winter  and  spring.  During  the  summer, 
when  the  stock  are  at  pasture,  it  will  dry  out  and  ferment, 
and  much  of  the  nitrogen  will  escape  to  the  air.  If  it  could 
be  kept  moist,  this  loss  could  be  avoided. 


144  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

To  prevent  losses  from  manure,  it  is  necessary: 

(1)  To  use  absorbents  to  retain  all  the  liquid  part. 

(2)  To  spread  it  on  the  land  as  soon  as  possible. 

(3)  If  it  cannot  be  spread  at  once,  keep  it  under  cover, 
tramped  and  moist,  and  on  a  cement  floor,  if  possible. 

Various  materials  are  used  with  manure  to  help  to  re- 
tain the  nitrogen  and  to  reinforce  the  manure  at  the  same 
time.  Kainit,  gypsum,  acid  phosphate  and  floats  are  most 
commonly  used.  Of  these,  acid  phosphate  and  floats  are  best, 
unless  the  farm  is  in  particular  need  of  potash.  Any  of  these 
substances  tend  to  retain  the  nitrogen  that  might  escape 
to  the  air  as  a  result  of  fermentation.  They  do  not  prevent 
much  of  the  losses  due  to  leaching.  About  40  pounds  of 
acid  phosphate,  or  twice  this  amount  of  floats,  may  be 
mixed  with  each  ton  of  manure  as  it  accumulates.  At  the 
Ohio  Station  40  pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  worth  about 
30  cents,  was  used  with  each  ton  of  manure.  This  pro- 
duced a  ten-year  average  increase  in  crops  to  the  value 
of  $4.57  for  each  ton  of  manure  above  the  cost  of  the 
acid  phosphate.  It  practically  doubled  the  benefits  from 
each  ton  of  manure.  This  is  doubtless  due  in  part  to  the 
saving  of  nitrogen,  and  in  part  to  the  need  of  phosphoric 
acid  on  this  land. 

145.  Application  of  Manure.  A  good  place  to  apply 
manure  is  preceding  the  corn  crop.  It  is  also  desirable  as 
a  top-dressing  for  grass  land.  Unless  there  is  some  reason 
for  not  doing  so,  the  manure  should  be  applied  on  the  most 
valuable  crop  that  is  being  raised, — corn,  cotton,  potatoes, 
truck,  etc.  On  fairly  fertile  land  it  is  not  best  to  apply 
it  directly  to  the  small  grain  crops,  as  oats,  wheat,  barley, 
as  they  are  likely  to  make  too  rank  a  growth. 


BARNYARD   MANURE 


145 


Fig.  62.     An  expensive  way  to  apply  manure 
Thrown  in  piles  and  spread  as  in  Fig.  63 


On  the  new  lands  of 
the  West,  manure 
sometimes  injures 
crops  when  it  is  plowed 
under,  chiefly  because 
it  causes  the  land  to 
dry  out.  On  such  lands 
the  use  of  manure 
should  not  be  con- 
demned.  It  should  be  appHed  as  thinly  as  possible  as  a 

top-dressing  on  grass  lands,  where  it  will  help  to  retain 

the  moisture.    When  it  is  plowed  under,  it  will  then  be  so 

well  rotted  as  to  do  no  harm.     Sometimes  it  is  best  to 

let  it  become  well  rotten  before  applying  on  such  land. 
Small  appUcations  frequently   made   are  much  better 

than  heavy  applications 

less    frequently.     The 

application    should,    if 

possible,  be  thin  enough 

so  that  the  entire  farm 

may  be  covered  in  three 

to  five  years. 

Manure  may  be  ap- 

pUed  at  any  time.    The 

sooner  it  is  on  the  land 

the  better.    It  is  better 

to  apply  it  in   the  fall 

or  winter  than  to  store 

it    until    spring.     It    is 

much  better  to  apply  it 

in   the  spring   than  to 


Fig.  63.  An  expensive  way  of  applying 
manure.  This  manure  was  pitched  out  of  the 
barn  onto  a  pile,  pitched  from  the  pile  onto  a 
wagon,  pitched  from  the  wagon  to  the  ground, 
ana  pitched  around  in  the  field  to  spread  it — • 
handled  four  times.    (See  Pigs.  62  and  65 .^ 


146 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  64.  Spreading  manure  directly  from 
the  wagon,  a  better  method  than  that  shown 
by  Figs.  62  and  63. 


wait  till  fall.  It  is  sometimes  feared  that  applications 
when  the  ground  is  frozen  or  when  there  is  snow  on  the 
land  may  result  in  loss,  but  experiments  have  not  shown 

this  to  be  serious.    The 

K __     smaller  amount  of  farm 

work  during  the  winter 
also  makes  this  a  desir- 
able time  to  spread  ma- 
nure. 

The  best  method  of 
applying  manure,  when 
large  amounts  are  to  be  hauled,  is  to  use  a  manure- 
spreader  (Fig.  65).  These  are  too  expensive  to  use  on  very 
small  farms.  The  chief  advantages  of  a  manure-spreader 
are  that  it  saves  labor  and  will  distribute  the  same  amount 
of  manure  over  more  land  and  spread  it  more  evenly.  If 
a  spreader  is  not  used,  the  manure  should  be  spread 
from  a  wagon,  and  it  may  be  desirable  to  go  over  it  with  a 
brush-harrow  or  spike- 
tooth  harrow  to  secure 
an  even  distribution.  It 
should  certainly  not  be 
thrown  into  small  piles 
in  the  field  and  then 
spread,  as  this  involves 
handling  it  once  more 
than  is  necessary. 

In  conclusion,  it  may 
be  said  that  the  chief 
means  of   maintaining   the   fertility   of   the  land    are  the 
rotation  of  crops,  including  grass  and  leguminous  crops  in 


Fig.  65.  Spreading  manure  with  a  manure 
spreader.  This  manure  was  pitched  from  the 
stable  to  the  spreader — handled  once  only. 
(See  Fig.  63.) 


BARNYARD   MaNURE  147 

the   rotation,   and   the  use  of   stable    manure — which   in- 
volves the  keeping  of  stock. 

GREEN-MANURE 

146.  Crops  are  sometimes  grown  for  the  purpose  of 
plowing  under  as  green-manure.  Rye,  buckwheat,  cow- 
peas,  crimson  clover,  are  frequently  grown  for  this  purpose 
This  is  a  desirable  practice  when  the  land  is  very  deficient 
in  humus.  So  far  as  possible,  such  crops  should  be  grown 
without  extra  labor.  Crimson  clover  or  cowpeas  may  be 
sown  in  corn  or  cotton  at  the  last  cultivation  with  little 
expense  except  for  seed.  In  regions  too  far  north  for  these 
plants  rye  is  often  used.  It  should  be  plowed  under  in 
the  spring  before  it  has  made  enough  growth  to  exhaust 
the  water  of  the  soil,  and  when  green  enough  to  rot  readily. 

It  is  not  often  wise  to  make  a  regular  practice  of  plow- 
ing under  crops  that  are  worth  harvesting.  It  will  be 
better  to  feed  them  to  stock  and  use  the  manure.  If  one 
is  trying  to  get  worn-out  land  to  produce,  or  under 
certain  conditions  where  stock  cannot  profitably  be  kept, 
the  practice  may  be  followed  regularly,  and  by  many 
means  catch  crops  too  small  to  harvest,  but  worth  plow- 
ing under,  may  be  procured. 

One  is  likely  to  be  deceived  as  to  the  amount  of  material 
that  is  being  added  to  the  soil  by  the  practice.  Green 
crops  are  about  70  to  75  per  cent  water,  which  is  likely 
to  deceive  one  as  to  the  amount  of  organic  matter. 

Some  of  the  best  potato  growers  plow  under  a  clover 
crop  every  three  years  for  keeping  up  the  humus  supply.  The 
potatoes  are  grown  on  the  sod  and  are  heavily  fertilized. 


148  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


QUESTIONS   AND   PROBLEMS 

1.  Are  fertilizers  used  in  your  region?  If  so,  what  fertilizers  produce 
the  best  results? 

2.  How  long  has  the  land  been  cropped?  Are  the  farms  as  pro- 
ductive as  formerly? 

3.  How  do  the  farm  practices  on  the  most  productive  farms  differ 
from  those  on  the  least  productive? 

4.  What  care  is  taken  of  the  barnyard  manure  to  prevent  losses 
from  leaching,  from  fermentation,  and  from  escape  of  the  liquid  portion? 

5.  On  what  crops  is  manure  used?  Is  it  needed  more  than  formerly? 
Will  it  pay  to  care  for  it  better  than  formerly? 

6.  If  fertilizers  are  used,  what  is  their  composition  and  cost?  Would 
it  pay  to  buy  the  separate  materials  and  mix  them  at  home? 

7.  What  wild  legumes  are  common  in  the  region? 

8.  Wheat  and  oats  can  be  grown  in  water  cultures,  yet  they  turn 
yellow  when  grown  on  wet  land.    Why? 

9.  What  are  the  three  leading  crops  of  the  region?  What  is  an 
average  yield  of  each?  How  much  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
would  each  crop  remove  from  an  acre  per  year  (Appendix,  Table  6)? 

10.  Get  the  present  prices  of  dried  blood,  nitrate  of  soda,  acid 
phosphate  and  muriate  of  potash,  also  the  freight  rate  from  the  town 
where  you  would  purchase  them.  If  these  cannot  be  had,  use  the 
following  prices,  which  are  f.  o.  b.  in  New  York  City,  September, 
1908.    Freight  rate  to  Ithaca,  less  than  car-lots,  18  cents  per  hundred. 

Dried  blood  (10  per  cent) $39  per  ton 

Nitrate  of  soda  (15  per  cent) 52  per  ton 

Acid  phosphate  (14  per  cent) 12  per  ton 

Muriate  of  potash  (50  per  cent) 41  per  ton 

Assuming  that  it  is  desirable  to  apply  1,000  pounds  per  acre  of 
a  3^,  8,  10  fertiUzer  on  eight  acres  of  potatoes: 

(a)  How  much  nitrate  of  soda,  acid  phosphate,  and  muriate  of 
potash  must  be  purchased? 

(b)  How  much  would  it  cost,  including  freight? 

(c)  How  much  of  the  mixture  as  made  by  a  farmer  would  need 
to  be  applied  per  acre? 

{d)  On  how  much  material  is  freight  saved? 

11.  Assuming  that  it  is  desirable  to  apply  200  pounds   per  acre 


QUESTIONS   AND  PROBLEMS 


149 


of  a  2,  10,  4  fertilizer  on  fall-sown  wheat,  work  problems  a,  h,  c,  d,  as 
oil  preceding  page,  but  use  half  the  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  dried  blood. 
12.  In  a  three-year  rotation  of  corn,  wheat  and  clover  at  the  Ohio 
Station,  eight  tons  of  manure  were  applied  on  the  corn  on  certain  plots. 
No  manure  was  used  on  the  wheat  or  clover.  These  crops  got  the  bene- 
fits of  the  manure  that  was  left  in  the  soil.  Stall  manure  and  that  from 
the  barnyard  were  used,  and  were  reinforced  with  different  fertilizers. 
The  following  are  results  on  a  few  plots: 


Plot 


7 
14 
15 
16 
17 


Treatment 


Nothing 

Yard  manure  and  floats  .  .  .  . 

Stall  manure  and  floats 

Nothing 

Yard  manure  and  acid  phos 

phate 

Stall  manure  and  acid  phos 

phate 

Nothing 

Nothing , 

Yard  manure 

Stall  manure 

Nothing 


Average  yield  per  acre 


Ck)ra  10  years 


Grain    Stover 


Bus. 
38.86 
59.85 
63.08 
33.04 

60.07 

64.90 
32.50 
33.97 
51.29 
58.79 
37.84 


Lbs. 
2,263 
3,347 
3,630 
2,047 

3,288 

3,534 
2,014 
2,058 
2,918 
3,372 
2,341 


Wheat  6  years 


Grain     Straw 


Bus. 
11.49 
24.21 
25.82 
10.24 

24.65 

25.55 

9.44 

9.61 

18.20 

19.73 

9.93 


Lbs. 
1,425 
2,627 

2,828 
1,193 


2,615 

2,800 
1,115 
1,105 
2,071 
2,237 
1,209 


Hay 
6  years 


Lbs. 
2,443 
3,818 
4,52^ 
1,754 

3,513 

4,439 
1,672 
1,626 
2,441 
3,140 
1,977 


Notice  that  each  third  plot  is  a  check  plot,  to  eliminate  differences 
due  to  the  variations  in  soil.  It  is  assumed  that  the  change  from  one 
check  plot  to  another  is  gradual.  Check  plot  1  yielded  38.86  bushels 
of  corn,  and  check  plot  4  yielded  33.04  bushels.  The  difference  is 
5.82.  We  assume  that  the  soil  is  getting  poorer  as  we  pass  froir  plot  1 
to  plot  4.  If  in  the  width  of  three  plots  it  has  decreased  5.82,  we  sup- 
pose that  it  would  decrease  one-third  this  amount  or  1.94  in  one  plot. 
If  untreated  it  is,  therefore,  assumed  that  plot  2  would  have  yielded 
36.92  bushels  and  plot  3  would  have  yielded  34.98  bushels.  In  order 
to  check  the  work  we  may  subtract  the  1.94  again  and  we  should  have 
33.04.  But  plot  2  did  yield  59.85  bushels,  hence  the  treatment  must 
have  produced  an  increase  of  22.93  bushels.  Similarly  fill  out  the  fol- 
lowing table.  It  may  be  easier  first  to  make  a  table  of  probable  yield?, 
of  each  plot  if  not  treated. 


150  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

Increased  Yields  Due  to  Manure  and  Fertilizer 


Plot 


15 
16 


Treatment 


Yard  manure  and  floats   ... 

Stall  manure  and  floats    .... 

Yard  manure  and  acid  phos 
phate 

Stall  manure  and  acid  phos- 
phate   

Yard  manure 

Stall  manure 


Average  increase  per  acre 


Corn  10  years 


Grain 


Bus. 
22.93 


Stover 


Wheat  6  years 


Grain     Straw 


Hay  6 

years 


If  com  is  worth  40  cents  per  bushel,  wheat  70  cents,  hay  $8  per 
ton,  stover  $3,  and  straw  $2,  fill  out  the  following  table: 

Value  of  Increase  Due  to  Manure  and  Fertilizer. 


Plot 

Treatment 

Total 
value  of 
increase 

Cost  of 
treatment 
per  acre"- 

Net  value  of  in'ireasb 

Per  acre 

Per  ton  oi 

manure 

2 
3 
5 

Yard  manure  and  floats 

Stall  manure  and  floats 

Yard  manure  and  acid 

phosphate 

$128 
128 

2  24 

2  24 

6 

Stall  manure  and  acid 
phosphate . 

15 
16 

Yard  manure 

Stall  Manure . 

PROBLEMS  FOR  CLASSES  THAT  HAVE  STUDIED  CHEMISTRY 

13.  Write  the  reactions  when:  (1)  Limestone  is  burned;   (2)  quick- 
lime is  water-slaked;  (3)  plaster  dries  out;  (4)  when  quicklime  air-slakes. 

14.  Find  the  comparative  amounts  of   lime  (CaO)  in  limestone, 
quick-lime  and  water-slaked  lime. 

^Cost  of  the  acid  phosphate  and  floats  per  acre 


LABORATORY   EXERCISES  151 

15.  Complete  the  following  reaction  which  takes  place  in  the 
manufacture  of  acid  phosphate: 

Caa  (P04)2+2H2S04+2H20=? 

The   resulting  mixture   is   acid   phosphate.     About   what   proportion 
of  it  is  land  plaster  or  gypsum? 

16.  A  2,  8,  10  fertilizer  contains  what  per  cent  of  NH3?  Of  P? 
Of  K? 

17.  Muriate  of  potash  that  is  80  per  cent  pure  (80  per  cent  KCl) 
would  be  stated  as  what  per  cent  potash  (K2O)? 

18.  Nitrate  of  soda  that  is  96  per  cent  pure  would  contain  what 
per  cent  of  N? 

LABORATORY   EXERCISES 

48.  Examination  of  Fertilizers. 

Materials. — Small  samples  of  different  fertilizing  materials. 
Describe  each.   Test  each  with  litmus  paper,  to  see  which  are  acid 
and  which  are  alkaline. 

49.  Absorption  of  Manure  by  Soils.     (For  humid  regions.) 

Materials. — One  quart  of  barnyard  manure,  can  of  soil,  perforated 
bottom. 

Let  the  manure  soak  in  water  for  a  day  or  two,  to  get  manure-water. 
Pour  this  through  the  soil.  Compare  with  the  water  that  comes  out 
at  the  bottom. 

50.  Losses  of  Manure. 

Materials. — Two  hundred  pounds  or  more  of  manure,  scales. 
Weigh  the  manure,  leave  it  in  a  pile  outdoors  for  several  months; 
weigh  again. 

61.   Mixing  Fertilizers. 

Materials. — Fifty  pounds  or  more  of  several  fertilizing  materials. 
Mix  these  in  the  proper  proportions  for  problem  10  or  11. 

52.   Fertilizer  Trial. 

Materials. — One-fourth  acre  or  more  of  farm  land;  separate  ingredi- 
ents for  fertilizers. 

Lay  off  the  field  into  plots  one-fortieth,  one-twentieth,  or  one- 


152  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

tenth  acre  each,  taking  care  to  have  the  plots  as  uniform  as  possible. 
Treat  the  plots  as  follows: 

Plot    1.  Nothing,  check. 

Plot    2.  Nitrate  of  soda,  at  the  rate  of  160  pounds  per  acre, 

4  pounds  for  one-fortieth  acre,  etc. 
Plot    3.  Acid  phosphate,  320  pounds  per  acre. 
Plot    4.   Nothing,  check. 

Plot    5.   Muriate  of  potash,  80  pounds  per  acre. 
Plot    6.  Nitrate  of  soda,  160  pounds;  acid  phosphate,  320  pounds. 
Plot    7.  Nothing,  check. 
Plot    8.   Nitrate  of  soda,    160  pounds;   muriate  of  potash,    80 

pounds. 
Plot    9.   Muriate  of  potash,   80   pounds;   acid   phosphate,    320 

pounds. 
Plot  10.  Nothing,  check. 
Plot  11.  Nitrate  of  soda,  160  pounds;  acid  phosphate,  320  pounds. 

muriate  of  potash,  80  pounds. 
Plot  12.   Barnyard  manure,  10  loads  or  tons  per  acre. 
Plot  13.   Nothing,  check. 
If  there  is  not  room  for  so  many  plots,  the  first  five  may  be  omitted. 
Raise  a  crop  of  corn,  cotton  or  potatoes  according  to  the  region.    In 
the  fall,  harvest  and  weigh  the  crop,  in  order  to  see  which  fertilizer  is 
most  profitable.  / 

If  the  school  does  not  have  land  available  for  such  an  experiment, 
some  farmer  nearby  will  probably  furnish  it.  Correspond  with  the 
State  Experiment  Station,  and  an  experiment  better  adapted  to  the 
community  n^ay  be  arranged  for. 

COLLATERAL  READING 

Commercial  Fertilizers,     Farmers'   Bulletin,  No.  44. 

Barnyard  Manure,    Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  192. 

Home  Mixing  of  Fertihzers.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  222,  pp.  5-9; 
No.  225,  pp.  7,  8. 

Lime  and  Clover.   Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  237,  pp.  5,  6. 

Use  of  Commercial  Fertilizers.    Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  259,  pp.  56. 

Leguminous  Crops  for  Green-Manuring.    Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  278 

Renovation  of  Worn-out  Soils.    Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  245. 

The  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources.  Farmers'  Bulletin,  Ng 
327. 


COLLATERAL  READING  153 

Consei'vation  of  Soil  Resources.  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  342,  pp. 
6-10. 

The  Maintenance  of  Fertility.    Ohio  Bulletin,  No.  182. 

The  Maintenance  of  Fertility  (Barnyard  Manure).  Ohio  Bulletin 
No.  183. 

How  to  Determine  the  Fertilizer  Requirements  of  Ohio  Soils- 
Ohio  Circular  No.  79. 

The  Fertility  in  Illinois  Soils.    Illinois  Bulletin  No.  123. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture.   Vol.  I,    pp.  454-513 

Soils,  by  S.  W.  Fletcher. 

Th3  Fertility  of  the  Land,  by  I.  P.  Roberts 

Soils  and  Fertilizers,  by  Harry  Snyder. 

Fertilizers,  by  E.  B.  Voorhees. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  NOTE  TO  PAGE  138 

Since  the  humus  of  soils  has  so  much  influence  on  crop  yields,  the 
amount  of  dry  matter  or  humus-making  material  of  the  feed  that  is- 
recovered  in  the  manure  is  of  great  importance.  In  one  test  with  a 
horse,  47  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter  of  the  feed  was  recovered  in  the 
manure.  In  a  test  with  a  steer,  55  per  cent  was  recovered.  The  dry 
matter  of  the  manure  is  probably  more  valuable  than  the  same  amount 
of  material  plowed  under  as  straw  or  hay.  It  is  safe  to  assume  that 
half  of  the  humus-making  material  is  recovered  in  the  manure. 

If  the  manure  is  allowed  to  rot,  some  of  this  material  is  lost.  In 
several  tests  where  it  was  exposed  six  months,  about  half  of  the  dry 
matter  was  lost. 

Just  as  it  is  usually  wise  to  feed  animals  to  get  manure  rather  than 
to  depend  entirely  on  commerical  fertilizers,  so  it  is  usually  wise  to  feed 
animals  to  get  humus  rather  than  plow  under  crops.  If  the  manure  is 
properly  handled  we  will  still  have  about  three-fourths  of  the  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  and  half  of  the  humus-making  material. 


CHAPTER   VII 
SOME  IMPORTANT  FARM  CROPS 

147.  Relative  Importance  of  the  Different  Crops  of 
the  World.  If  under  the  one  word  grass  we  include  all 
the  hay  and  pasture  plants,  then  the  most  important 
crop  of  the  world  is  grass.  But  this  is  a  collection  of  a 
number  of  different  plants. 

The  most  valuable  single  plant  of  the  world  is  wheat. 
The  potato  is  second  in  value  and  corn  third.  There 
are  now  more  pounds  of  corn  grown  than  of  wheat,  but  the 
wheat  is  worth  more  per  pound,  so  that  its  total  value 
is  still  greater  than  that  of  corn. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  two  crops  whose  total  yields 
lead  all  other  crops  are  natives  of  the  new  world.   The  dis- 

Potatoes 284 

Com 218 

Wheat    207 

Oats 114 

Rice 107 

Rye 81 


Barley 62 

Fig.  66.    The  world's  crop  production  for  the  year  1906  in  billions  of  pounds.^ 

covery  of  America  was  much  more  than  the  discovery 
of  more  land.  Of  these  two  crops,  corn  has  attained  the 
greatest  development  in  America,  but  the  potato  has  at- 

1  Yearbook,  United  States  Department  ot  Agriculture,  1907.  Bushels 
of  wheat  multiplied  by  60,  com  by  56,  potatoes  by  60,  oats  by  32,  rye  by 
56,  barley  by  48. 

(154) 


SOME  IMPORTANT  FARM  CROPS  155 

tained  greater  prominence  in  Europe  than  in  its  native 
land. 

Of  the  cereal^  crops,  the  leading  one  in  Europe  is  wheat; 
in  Asia,  rice;  in  South  America,  wheat;  in  North  America, 
corn. 

148.  Relative  Rank  of  the  Different  Crops  in  the  United 
States.  In  1899,  the  census  value  of  corn  was  over  one- 
fourth  of  the  value  of  all  crops — all  plant  products — in 
the  United  States.  The  forest  crops  are  second  in  value; 
then  follow  in  order:  cotton,  hay,  wheat,  oats,  potatoes, 
barley  and  tobacco.   None  except  those  listed  has  an  annual 


Corn 1,132 

Forest  Prod- 
ucts   850 

Cotton 590 

Hay 587 

Wheat 503 

Oats 293 

Potatoes 161 

Barley 70 

Tobacco 61 

Fig.  67.    Crops  of  the  United  States,    Average  values  in  millions  of  doilara 
for  the  five  years  1903  to  1907.     Forest  products  for  1906  only.  ^ 

value  as  great  as  $25,000,000.  The  diagram  shows  the 
comparative  values  of  these  crops.  The  values  given 
do  not  include  the  value  of  the  corn-stalks  or  the  straw 
of  wheat  and  oats,  or  the  value  of  the  wood  used  as  fuel. 
See  Appendix,  Table  11  for  comparative  values  of  different 
agricultural  products.  The  crop  yields  are  given  in  Table  14. 

^A  cereal  is  a  grass  grown  for  its  edible  grain. 

2Yearbook,    United    States    Department   of    Agriculture,    1907,    and 
Forest  Service  Bulletin  No.  77. 


156  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

CORN 

149.  Historical.  Corn  is  a  native  of  the  New  World. 
It  is  thought  to  have  originated  in  Mexico,  and  to  have 
been  carried  north  and  south  by  the  Indians.  The  Indians 
had  grown  it  for  many  centuries  before  America  was 
discovered.  They  were  raising  better  crops  of  it  than  some 
farmers  now  raise.  They  taught  the  first  settlers  how 
to  grow  it.  Had  it  not  been  for  the  corn  that  the  Indians 
shared  with  them,  the  early  settlers  would  have  died  of 
famine.  Had  it  not  been  for  corn,  the  settlement  of  the 
middle  West  would  have  been  long  delayed,  and  it  is  even 
conceivable  that  this  region  might  not  now  belong  to  the 
United  States.  Had  it  not  been  for  the  increased  wealth 
and  population  of  the  North,  which  was  due  to  corn,  it 
is  possible  that  the  Civil  War  might  have  ended  differ- 
ently. Corn  and  cotton  have  had  more  to  do  with  the  his- 
tory of  America  than  has  ''taxation  without  representa- 
tion." In  fact,  there  would  have  been  few  people  to  tax 
at  the  time  of  the  Revolution  had  it  not  been  for  these 
crops. 

The  botanical  name  of  corn  is  Zea  mays.  It  is  often _ 
called  maize,  or  Indian  corn,  in  order  to  distinguish  it 
from  corn  as  the  word  is  used  in  Europe.  Wheat,  barley, 
and  other  small  grains  are  there  spoken  of  as  corn.  The 
word  is  used  much  as  we  use  the  word  grain.  Probably 
most  Americans  think  of  Indian  corn  when  the  word  corn 
is  read  in  the  Bible,  but  we  must  remember  that  in  those 
days  the  Indians  were  probably  the  only  people  who  knew 
this  crop. 

150.  Corn  Crop  of  the  World.     Over  three-fourths  of 


CORN  157 

the  world's  corn  crop  is  grown  in  the  United  States.  Nearly 
half  of  the  world's  crop  is  grown  in  the  seven  states  of 
Illinois,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Indiana  and 
Ohio.  These  are  the  corn-surplus  states.  It  is  these  seven 
states  that  furnish  nearly  all  of  the  corn  that  is  sold  off 
the  farms  on  which  it  grows.  Corn  occupies  one-third  of 
the  area  in  crops  of  all  kinds  in  the  United  States,  other 
than  pasture.  About  one-third  of  the  farms  raise  wheat, 
but  over  four-fifths  of  them  raise  corn. 

'If  the  corn  crop  of  the  United  States  for  1906  had 
been  placed  in  wagons,  50  bushels  per  load,  and  allowed 
20  feet  of  space  for  each  wagon  and  team,  the  train  of 
corn  would  have  reached  nine  times  around  the  earth 
at  the  equator.^' ^ 

The  United  States  has  no  rival  in  corn-production. 
Argentina  ranks  second,  but  it  produces  only  about  one- 
fifteenth  as  much  as  the  United  States.  Argentina  still 
has  a  considerable  area  of  undeveloped  land  that  is  adapted 
to  corn,  but  it  is  not  probable  that  its  production  will 
ever  equal  that  of  the  United  States. 

151.  Relation  of  Climate  to  Corn-production.  As  has 
been  stated  in  previous  chapters,  climate  is  a  much  more 
important  factor  in  crop-growth  than  is  the  soil.  The 
regions  that  have  similar  cUmates  have  similar  plants  the 
world  over. 

In  order  to  produce  the  best  yields  of  any  crop,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  rainfall,  temperature  and  sunshine  all 
be  adapted  to  that  crop..  For  its  best  growth,  corn  requires 
a  high  temperature  during  the  growing  season,  long  days 
of  bright  sunshine,  and  a  large  amount  of  rain  during  the 

^Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  p.  403 


158 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


hottest  weather.  The  ''corn -belt"  of  the  United  States 
seems  to  be  the  largest  area  in  the  world  where  these 
climatic  features  are  favorable,  and  where  the  land  is 
level  enough  for  economic  corn-production.  Even  here 
there  are  probably  no  seasons  when  corn  does  not  suffer 
to  some  extent  from  unfavorable  weather. 


3 

14 

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1 1 

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t 

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f, 

Fig.  68.     Rainfall  for  June,  July  and  August  and  yield  of  com   per  acre.* 

Average  yields  of  com  1888  to  1902. 

Average  rainfall  for  June,  July  and  August. 

It  is,  of  course,  the  temperature  of  the  growing  season 
rather  than  the  temperature  for  the  year  that  limits  the 
corn  crop.  Nearly  nine-tenths  of  the  corn  of  the  United 
States  is  grown  in  regions  where  the  July  temperature 
is  between  70°  and  80°  Fahr.  More  is  grown  in  the  warmer 
part  of  this  region  than  in  the  colder  part. 

The  amount  and  intensity  of  sunshine  is  also  important. 

^Yearbook,  1903,  pp.  215-224 


CORN  159 

Few  persons  realize  that  there  is  much  more  sunshine  in 
lUinois  than  in  Louisiana  during  the  summer  months. 
Not  only  are  there  more  hours  of  daylight,  but  the  sunshine 
is  much  more  intense.  When  rains  come,  they  are  usually 
of  short  duration  and  are  followed  by  bright  sunshine. 
The  glaring  sunlight  of  the  middle  West  is  one  of  its  natural 
resources — worth  more  than  gold  mines. 

In  the  corn-belt  of  the  United  States  there  does  not 
seem  to  be  any  very  definite  relationship  between  varia- 
tions in  temperature  from  year  to  year  and  the  corn  crop. 
But  there  is  a  very  decided  relationship  between  rain- 
fall and  yield.  Again,  it  is  not  the  rainfall  of  the  year, 
but  that  of  the  growing  period,  that  is  most  important. 
The  rainfall  of  western  England  is  37  inches  per  year. 
That  of  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  is  27  inches.  Yet  the  latter 
rainfall  is  better  adapted  to  corn,  because  16  inches  of 
the  year's  supply  falls  in  May,  June,  July  and  August, 
while  in  England  only  11  inches  falls  during  these  months. 
The  summer  rainfall  is  deficient  in  most  parts  of  Europe 
and  Asia  that  might  otherwise  be  adapted  to  corn.  Fig.  68 
shows  the  relationship  of  rainfall  to  yield  of  corn.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  line  representing  the  rainfall  for  June, 
July  and  August  is  almost  parallel  with  the  line  represent- 
ing the  yield  per  acre. 

152.  Why  We  Raise  Corn.  Where  corn  thrives,  it  pro- 
duces about  twice  as  much  food  per  acre  as  is  produced 
by  any  of  the  other  grains.  This,  together  with  the  Hmited 
area  of  land  with  a  corn  cUmate,  makes  the  farms  in  our 
corn-belt  very  high  in  price.  It  also  makes  it  possible  to 
grow  corn  in  many  regions  that  are  not  best  adapted  to 
it.    A  half-crop  of  corn  may  produce  as  much  food  as 


160 


ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 


a  full  crop  of  other  grains.  The  demand  for  wheat  as 
human  food  and  for  oats  as  horse  food,  makes  these  grains 
sell  for  higher  prices  per  pound  than  corn. 

Average  Crops  in  the  United  States  for  Five  Years  (1903-1907). 


Average 
yield 

Pounds 

Total  digestible 
food  per  acre^ 

Value 
per  acre 

Corn 

Wheat 

Oats 

Potatoes    

Cotton 

Bus. 
27.5 
13.9 
30.1 
95.9 

1,540 
834 
963 

5,754 

Pounds 

1,298 
694 
636 

1,001 

$11   99 
10  80 
10  00 
53  35 
20  70 

Another  reason  for  growing  corn  is  that  it  is  a  tilled 
crop.  It  is  very  desirable  to  have  a  tilled  crop  in  the 
rotation,  in  order  to  free  the  land  of  weeds  and  secure 
the  other  benefits  that  come  from  tillage. 

Since  corn  pays  better  than  oats  in  most  parts  of  the 
United  States,  why  should  we  raise  any  oats?  Oats  are 
really  not  a  competitor  of  corn.  A  farmer  can  raise  all 
the  corn  that  he  can  care  for  and  raise  oats  besides,  as  the 
work  does  not  come  at  the  same  time.  Some  persons  have 
wondered  why  American  farmers  give  so  much  less  atten- 
tion to  potatoes  and  root  crops  than  do  the  farmers  of 
Europe.  These  crops  compete  with  corn.  They  occupy 
the  same  place  in  the  rotation  as  corn,  and  require  work 
at  the  same  season  of  the  year.  In  Europe,  the  cUmate 
and  cheaper  labor  are  both  favorable  to  these  crops,  so 
that  they  can  drive  corn  out.  In  this  country,  we  raise 
few  root  crops  or  potatoes  except  for  human  food.  Our 
climate  makes  corn  a  cheaper  stock  food.    A  farmer  should 

^  Total  food  here  includes  the  digestible  protein-f-carbohydrates-|-2jX 
fat.     (See  page  286.) 


CORN 


161 


grow  a  sufficient  variety  of  crops  so  that  he  will  be  em- 
ployed as  much  of  the  year  as  possible.  He  must  then 
pick  the  most  profitable  crop  for  each  season.  In  the 
South  there  are  two  crops  that  can  compete  with  corn; 
they  are  cotton  and  tobacco. 

153.  Types  of  Corn.  There  are  six 
types  of  corn:  (1)  Pod  corn  (Zea  tuni- 
cata) ;  (2)  soft  corn  (Zea  amylacea) ;  (3) 
pop-corn  (Zea  everta);  (4)  sweet  corn 
(Zea  saccharata);  (5)  flint  corn  (Zea 
indurata) ;  (6)  dent  corn  (Zea  inden- 
lata) . 

The  pod   corn  is  characterized 
by  having  husks  around  each  ker- 
nel.   It  is  interesting,  because 
it  is  thought    to  be   the  type 
from   which    the    others   were 
derived.   The  scales  at  the  base 
of  each  kernel  of  common  corn 
are    probably   the    husks 
much  reduced  in  size. 

Soft  corn  is  not  grown 
in  North  America  except 
as  a  curiosity.  Its  endo- 
sperm is  all  soft  white 
starch. 

Pop-corn  is  character- 
ized by  its  small  size,  its 
very  hard  kernel  and  con- 
sequent   habit    of    popping.  Fig.  69.   Good  ears  of  flint 

corn.    Grown  for  grain  in  the 
It  IS  the  other  extreme  from  northeastern  states. 


162 


ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 


soft  corn,  as  its  endosperm  is  practically  all  hard,  horny- 
starch. 

Sweet  corn  is  grown  chiefly  for  human  food,  either 
green,  dried  or  canned.  The  corn-can- 
ning industry  is  now  becoming  very 
important. 

Flint  corn  is  characterized  by  having 
the  larger  part  of  its  endosperm  hard. 
It  is  still  the  prevailing  type  of  field 
corn  in  New  York  and  New  England. 
It  is  earlier  than  most  of  the  dent  varie- 
ties. Where  the  latter  are  successful, 
they  will  out-yield  the  flint.  The  dent 
types  are  nearly  always  grown  for  silage, 
and  some  of  the  earlier  dent  varieties 
are  displacing  the  flint  corn  in  many 
localities. 

Dent  corn  has  both  horny  and  soft 
endosperm.  It  is  the  presence  of  the 
soft  endosperm  that  causes  the  shrinking 
when  the  grain  ripens  and  results  in  the 
''dent"  at  the  top  of  the  kernel.  This  is 
the  type  that  furnishes  nearly  all  of  the 
world's  corn  crop.  The  flint  corn  is  about 
as  much  of  a  curiosity  in  the  corn-belt 
as  is  the  pod  corn.  A  large  number  of 
varieties  have  been  developed.  Some  of  the  leading  ones 
are  the  Leaming,  Reid's  Yellow  Dent,  and,  for  northern 
sections.  Pride  of  the  North. 

There  seems  to  be  no  difference  in  composition  of  the 
dent  and  the  flint  varieties.     The  difference  between  hard 


Fig.  70.    A  good  ear 
of  dent  com 


CORN  163 

and  soft  endosperm  seems  to  be  chiefly  a  physical  one, 
being  the  difference  between  ice  and  snow.  When  com- 
pacted, the  endosperm  is  glossy,  but  when  loose  it  is  starchy. 

154.  Fertilizers  for  Corn.  Corn  is  not  a  poor-land  crop. 
On  poor  soils  there  are  other  crops,  such  as  hay,  oats, 
rye,  buckwheat,  that  will  give  some  thing  of  a  yield  when 
the  soil  is  so  poor  that  corn  would  produce  Httle  or  no 
grain.  Barnyard  manure  is  nearly  always  applied  on 
the  corn  crop.  Some  of  the  farmers  in  the  northern  states 
are  coming  to  apply  it  with  a  manure-spreader  on  the 
meadows  one  year  preceding  the  corn  crop.  This  seems 
to  be  a  good  practice.  Commercial  fertilizers  do  not 
usually  give  so  good  results  with  corn  as  with  hay  and  the 
small  grains.  This  is  probably  because  these  crops  are 
planted  earher,  before  the  soil  activities  have  Uberated 
plant-food,  while  corn  grows  at  the  season  when  the  food 
of  the  soil  is  being  prepared  most  rapidly. 

155.  Plowing  for  Corn.  There  seems  to  be  no  particular 
difference  between  fall  plowing  and  early  spring  plowing  on 
the  average.  In  exceptional  cases,  one  or  the  other  may 
be  best.  In  regions  of  deficient  rainfall,  it  is  desirable 
to  plow  in  the  summer  or  early  fall,  if  possible,  in  order 
to  have  the  land  in  condition  to  absorb  and  retain  mois- 
ture. If  the  land  washes  badly,  as  in  parts  of  the  South, 
spring  plowing  is,  of  course,  to  be  preferred.  In  most  of 
the  country,  the  labor  question  is  of  more  importance 
than  the  soil  differences.  It  is  desirable  to  do  as  much 
of  the  plowing  as  possible  in  the  fall,  so  as  to  have  it  out 
of  the  way  of  spring  work. 

The  earlier  spring  plowing  can  be  done  the  better; 
of  course,  it  should  not  be  done  until  the  soil  is  fit  to  work. 


164 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  71. 


Early  plowing  enables  the  soil  to  take  up  and  retain  more 
moisture,  and  also  increases  the  activity  of  the  soil  organ- 
isms, so  that  more  plant-food  is  made  available.  The 
difference  between  early  and  late  spring  plowing  is  usually 

more  than  the  difference 
between  fall  and  spring 
plowing. 

Quiroga  found  that  the 
surface  two  feet  of  soil  on 
early-plowed    land     con- 
A  good  plow  tained  an  average  of  21 .49 

per  cent  of  moisture  for  the  season,  while  on  late-plowed 
land  the  average  was  20.27  per  cent.  The  soluble  nitrogen 
in  parts  per  milUon  of  dry  soil  averaged  4.51  for  the  early- 
plowed  land  and  2.83  for  the  late-plowed.  The  yields 
of  corn  were  59.6  bushels  and  47.4  bushels.^  The  early- 
plowed  land  had  more 
moisture,  more  soluble 
nitrogen,  and  produced 
more  grain. 

Early  plowing  usu- 
ally requires  more  labor 
in  subsequent  fitting  of 
the  land.  If  one  is 
turning  under  clover, 
or  other  green-manure 
crop,  the  early-plowed 
land    will    also    receive   less   additional    humus. 

The   proper   depth   for   plowing    varies    with   different 
conditions.    Experiments  have  not  yet  shown  the  exact 

AQhio  State  University  Bulletin,  Series  8,  No.  28 


Fig.  72.  A  four-horse  gang  plow.  One  man 
can  plow  nearly  as  fast  as  two  men  with  two- 
horse  plows. 


CORN 


165 


relationship  to  these  conditions.  The  trials  thus  far  con- 
ducted have  given  best  results  with  depths  of  four  to 
six  inches.  In  the  humid  regions,  deeper  plowing  has 
been  more  successful  than  in  the  arid  regions. 

Subsoiling^  is  nowhere  a  common  practice.  Many 
trials  of  it  have  shown  it  to  be  unprofitable,  with  rare 
exceptions. 

In  case  one  wishes  to  deepen  the  soil,  it  should  not  be 

done  all  at  once.  If  sev- 
eral inches  of  the  raw 
subsoil  are  turned  up, 
it  will  injure  the  first 
few  crops.  It  is  better 
to  plow  one  inch  deeper 
each  year  until  the  de- 
sired depth  is  reached. 
In  semi-arid  regions  the 
subsoil  is  usually  not  so  different  from  the  surface  soil.  On 
many  soils  the  depth  should  be  varied  from  year  to  year, 
otherwise  a  hard  layer  may  form  where  the  plow  runs. 

When  several  teams  are  plowing  on  the  same  land,  the 
plows  should  all  be  set  at  the  same  depth.  If  one  plow  runs 
an  inch  deeper  than  the 
others,  it  is  much  harder 
for  this  team  than  it 
would  be  if  all  plows 
ran  at  the  same  depth. 

^Subsoiling  is  the  break- 
ing up  of  the  subsoil  in  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow  without 
bringing  the  subsoil  to  the  sur- 
face.   The  subsoil  plow  follows  j,       74      Buckwheat  on  land  that  wa 

the  regular  plow  in  the  same  ,        j  1  .      1:.    _    j-„;„; i?:„  Ti 

furrow.  plowed  late.   Farm  adjommg  tig.  74 


Fig.  73.     Buckwheat   on   land    that  was 
plowed  early  and  well  fitted 


166  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

156.  Fitting  the  Land  After  Plowing.  Fall-plowed  land 
is  usually  left  without  other  working  until  spring.  If 
heavy  soil  is  fall-plowed  and  too  finely  pulverized,  it  is 
likely  to  ''run  together."'     (See  Fig.  43.) 

Spring-plowed  land  should  be  dragged  with  a  smooth- 
ing harrow  or  otherwise  stirred  before  the  clods  become 

too  dry  to  crumble  read- 
ily. The  drier  the  soil 
the  more  frequently  this 

Fig.  75.     Smoothing  harrow.    A  good  tool  for       should    be    doue.      Under 
killing  weeds  and  fitting  land  ^g^^j       COUditioUS,       the 

harrowing  should  be  done  on  the  day  that  it  is  plowed. 
If  the  weather  is  very  dry,  and  particularly  in  semi-arid 
regions,  it  may  be  necessary  to  harrow  within  a  few  hours 
after  plowing.  One  may  stop  in  the  middle  of  each  half-day 
for  this  purpose.  Usually  the  land  should  be  harrowed  with 
the  smoothing  harrow  two  to  four  times  before  planting. 
Sometimes  it  may  be  better  to  use  the  disk  harrow.  On 
stony  land  or  on  very  hard  soil  the  spring-tooth  harrow 
may  be  used.   This  is  really  a  cultivator. 

If  corn  is  to  be  kept  clean,  it  should  be  planted  in  a 
seed-bed  that  is  free  from  weeds  and  that  has  been  freshly 
stirred  in  order  to  kill  any  sprouting  seeds.  This  gives 
the  corn  a  chance  to  start  even  with  the  weeds.  It  is  very 
foolish  to  plant  on  land  that  has  germinating  weeds, 
thinking  to  kill  them  after  planting.  It  is  better  to  delay 
the  planting  long  enough  to  kill  the  weeds. 

157.  Planting.  The  selection  of  seed  and  germination 
tests  have  been  previously  discussed  (pages  25  and  48). 

''The  Indian  method  of  planting  maize  was  to  plant 
four  grains  in  a  hill  four  feet  each  way.   This  method  they 


CORN 


167 


taught  to  the  colonists."^  Most  of  the  corn  in  the  corn- 
belt  is  planted  3  feet  8  inches  apart  each  way,  with  two  to 
four  kernels  per  hill.  In  the  more  humid  parts,  three  stalks 
per  hill  is  considered  best.  In  the  semi-arid  regions  or  on 
poor  land,  two  stalks  is  considered  best.  In  the  South, 
where  the  season  is  long  and  the  soil  often  poor,  much 
thinner  planting  is  better.  The  rows  may  be  placed  five 
feet  apart  and  a  row  of  cowpeas  planted  between  for  soil 
improvement. 

Four  kernels  in  a  hill  seem  to  give  the  same  yield  as 
if  the  same  number  are  planted  in  drills,  one  kernel  in  a 
place.  If  rowed  both 
ways,  as  is  done  by  the 
check-row  planter,  the 
corn  may  be  cultivated 
both  ways  and  so  kept 
clean  much  more  easily. 
The  check-row  planters 
are  not  adapted  to  very 

uneven  land  or  to  fields      Fig.  76.    a  check-row  corn-planted  Plants  two 

that  contain  trees.   For       '"^^^  ^*  ^"^"^^  ^^^  ^°^^  *^®  ^°™  b°*^  ^*y^ 
these  reasons,  the  corn  in  the  northeastern  states  is  mostly 
drilled.    The  higher  cost  of  the  check-row  planter  is  also 
a  factor.  There  are,  however,  many  level  farms  that  might 
profitably  use  this  machine. 

In  the  semi-arid  regions,  a  considerable  part  of  the 
corn  is  planted  with  a  lister.  The  lister  is  a  sort  of  double 
plow  that  opens  up  a  deep  furrow  and  plants  the  corn  in 
the  bottom.  As  the  corn  grows,  the  cultivation  gradually 
fills  the  ditch.    Corn  planted  in  this  way  in  dry  regions 

^T.  F.  Hunt,  Cereals  in  America,  p.  231 


168 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  77.    A  lister  for  planting  corn  in  semi- 
arid  regions 


yields  as  much  or  more  than  that  planted  with  a  check- 
row planter.  The  chief  advantage  seems  to  be  in  the  re- 
duction of  labor.  The  land  does  not  need  to  be  plowed 
for  listed  corn.  This  sav- 
ing in  cost  is  of  much  im- 
portance when  there  is  a 
possibility  of  a  small  crop. 
No  matter  how  deep 
corn,  wheat  or  oats  are 
planted,  they  will  send  out 
their  permanent  roots  at  the  depth  that  seems  best  for 
their  growth  in  the  particular  soil.  Fig.  78  shows  some 
rye  plants  planted  at  different  depths.  By  varying  the 
length  of  the  first  internode,  they  have  all  started  their 

permanent  roots  at  the 
same  depth, — in  this  case, 
seven-eighths  of  an  inch 
below  the  surface.  After 
the  roots  have  developed 
from  the  node,  the  lower 
roots  die  if  they  have  been 
planted  too  deeply.  The 
plant  can  thus  ''transplant" 
itself  to  the  proper  depth. 

In  humid  regions,  one 
inch  deep  has  usually  given 
better  yields  of  corn  than 
deeper  planting.  It  is  usu- 
ally necessary  to  set  the 
planter  deeper  than  one  inch,  in  order  to  have  all  the  grain 
covered.     A  level   seed-bed  will  make  it  much  easier  to 


Fig.  78.  Readjustment  of  a  rye  plant 
when  planted  too  deep.  No  matter  how 
deep  the  seed  is  planted,  the  permanent 
roots  are  formed  at  the  same  depth.  Too 
deep  planting  weakens  the  plant  as 
shown  on  the  left. 


Fig.  79.     Field  of  corn  on  which  a  weeder  was  used  before  cultivating 


Fig.  80 


Field  of  com  on  farm  adjoining  Fig.  79.   Weeder  waa  nOt'iiSddr  Other ' 
treatment  was  similar 


p'i''^^ 


)^i?i 


CORN 


169 


Fig.  81.  A  weeder.  A  good  weed  killer, 
better  than  a  smoothing-harrow  on  stony- 
land. 


plant  at  the  desired  depth.  The  drier  the  region  and  the 
more  sandy  the  soil,  the  deeper  corn  may  be  planted.  The 
greatest  danger  of  too  deep 
planting  is  that  a  poor 
stand  may  result. 

158.  Tillage  After  Plant- 
ing. After  the  corn  is 
planted  it  should  be  har- 
rowed once  with  a  smooth- 
ing harrow,  or  with  a 
weeder,  and  should  be  gone  over  again  after  it  is  well 
up.  The  best  time  to  kill  weeds  is  when  they  are  just 
coming  up, — when  they  appear  to  be  insignificant.    When 

they  are  large  enough  to 
attract  attention,  they 
are  too  large  to  be  easily 
killed.  If  the  land  is  well 
prepared  and  is  har- 
rowed just  before  plant- 
ing, and  is  given  these 
two  harro  wings  after 
planting,  it  will  be*  well  started  on  its  way.  In  large  fields 
of  mellow  soil  this  work  may  be  done  with  a  four-horse 
smoothing  harrow  that 
will  cover  16  to  20  feet,  so 
that  the  work  may  be  done 
very  rapidly.  On  stony 
land  the  weeder  may  be 
used. 

Corn  treated  this  way 
will  usually  require  three         p,^^  §3.    a  good  nding  cultivator 


Fig.  82.     An  undesirable  cultivator.    Shovels 
are  too  large  and  the  man  is  required  to  walk 


170  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

cultivations.  In  some  regions,  as  many  as  five  may  be 
needed.  The  ideal  way  is  to  stir  the  soil  after  each  rain 
as  soon  as  it  is  fit  to  work,  and  to  maintain  a  loose,  mel- 
low surface.  In  the  middle  West,  the  cultivation  is  most 
commonly  done  with  a  two-horse  cultivator  that  finishes 
one  row  at  a  time.  Wherever  possible,  two-horse  cultivators 
should  be  used.  One-horse  cultivators  were  all  right  when 
men  worked  for  50  cents  a  day,  but  they  should  not  now 
be  used  except  for  small  areas  on  small  farms,  or  where 
labor  is  still  cheap  and  ineflBcient,  as  in  the  South. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  single  point  in  the  raising  of  corn 
that  has  been  the  source  of  greater  loss  than  too  deep 
cultivation.  A  large  part  of  the  roots  of  corn  extend 
nearly  horizontally  for  some  distance  within  four  inches 
of  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Deep  cultivation  cuts  these 
roots  so  much  as  to  injure  the  crop.  The  substitution  of 
smaller  shovels  in  recent  years  has  done  much  to  encour- 
age shallow  culture.  The  first  cultivation  may  be  deeper 
than  the  later  ones.  The  common  practice  of  cultivating 
deep  and  throwing  the  dirt  to  the  rows  when  the  corn  is 
''laid  by"  is  very  undesirable.  The  old  shovel-plow  that 
digs  off  the  surface  soil,  exposes  the  roots  and  leaves  a 
hard  surface  exposed  is  much  worse.  The  only  excuse 
for  these  methods  is  to  bury  weeds  in  the  row.  These 
weeds  should  have  been  killed  at  previous  cultivations 
or  by  the  harrowing  before  or  after  planting. 

Sixty-one  tests  of  deep  cultivation  at  thirteen  experi- 
ment stations  gave  an  average  yield  of  9.8  bushels  per 
acre  less  corn  than  shallow  culture.  In  most  cases,  one  to 
two  inches  has  been  called  shallow,  and  four  or  more 
inches  deep. 


Fio.  84.     Distribution  of  com  roots  sixty  days  after  planting.    Notice  the  masa 
of  roots  that  ^oi^d  be  cut  off  by  a  cultivator  running  four  inches  deep 


CORN  171 

159.  Harvesting.  More  corn  is  husked  from  the  stand- 
ing stalks  in  the  field  than  is  harvested  in  any  other  way. 
The  standing  stalks  are  then  commonly  pastured  during 
the  winter.  This  is  the  cheapest  m.ethod  of  gathering  the 
giain,  but  the  fodder  is  of  more  value  wnen  cut.  In  regions 
where  feed  is  less  abundant,  the  corn  is  usually  cut  for 
fodder  or  is  put  in  the  silo. 

Corn  harvesters  are  very  desirable,  but  are  not  profit- 
able unless  one  has  a  considerable  area  to  cut.  Zintheo^ 
figures  that  the  interest  and  depreciation  on  such  a  binder 
is  $22.50  per  year,  and  that  the  twine  and  labor  of  cutting 
is  worth  75  cents  per  acre.  If  one  cuts  only  10  acres  per 
year,  it  would,  therefore,  cost  $3  an  acre,  besides  the 
shocking  or  hauling  to  the  silo.  If  one  cuts  20  acres,  the 
cost  would  be  about  $1.90  per  acre  besides  the  shocking, 
which  costs  aboi  t  45  cents.  It  costs  about  $1.50  per  acre 
to  cut  a-nd  shock  by  hand.  If  one  has  20  or  more  acres 
per  year  to  cut,  it  will  probably  pay  to  own  a  harvester, 
as  the  work  can  be  done  more  rapidly  and  with  greater 
independence,  and  the  bundles  are  much  easier  to  handle 
than  the  loose  corn.  For  a  less  area,  it  will  pay  better  to 
hire  a  neighbor  who  has  a  harvester,  or  do  the  work  by 
hand;  or  a  sled  may  be  used.  This  seems  to  be  the  cheap- 
est of  all  methods,  costing  about  $1.20  per  acre,  cut  and 
shocked. 

160.  Corn  Silage.  One  of  the  most  important  develop- 
ments in  the  use  of  corn  in  recent  years  has  been  the  in- 
troduction of  the  silo.  The  firbt  silo  in  America  was  built 
in  1879.  Silos  have  come  into  general  use  in  dairy  sections 
during  the  past  fifteen  years.    The  entire  corn-stalk  and 

^-Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  303 


172 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


grain  is  shredded  or  cut  into  small  pieces  and  stored  in 
the  tight  silo.     (See  Figs.  143  and  144.) 

The  silo  prevents  much  of  the  loss  of  food.  It  makes 
it  easier  to  handle  the  food,  and  makes  the  manure  much 
easier  to  handle  than  if  fodder  is  used.  In  northern  sec- 
tions, larger  varieties  of  corn  can  be  grown  for  the  silo 
than  can  be  matured  for  fodder.  Silage  is  more  palatable 
than  fodder,  and  the  stock  will  eat  more  of  it.  The  same 
amount  of  corn  in  the  silo  will  produce  more  milk  than  it 
will  if  fed  as  fodder.  The  following  table  shows  the  quan- 
tity of  milk  produced  from  equal  amounts  of  corn  made 
into  silage  and  fed  as  fodder:^ 

Pounds  of  Milk  Produced 


Silage 

Fodder 

Gain 

Vermont^ 

8,525 
7,496 

7,688 
7,119 

Per  cent 
11 

Wisconsin^    ... 

5 

Any  kind  of  green  material  may  be  preserved  in  the 
silo.  Even  dried  corn  fodder  may  be  put  in  the  silo,  and 
sufficient  water  added  to  make  it  keep.  Alfalfa,  clover, 
soy-beans,  cowpeas,  are  used  for  silage  to  some  extent, 
but  corn  is  the  almost  universal  silage  material. 

161.  Methods  of  Preserving  Food  and  the  Principle 
of  the  Silo.  Heat  and  moisture  are  necessary  for  the  growth 
of  the  bacteria  and  molds  that  cause  decay.  Hence,  if 
a  substance  is  sufficiently  dried  or  is  kept  sufficiently 
cold,  it  will  be  preserved.    These  principles  are  used  in 

^The  word  fodder  is  used  to  include  the  stalks  and  grain.  Stover  is 
the  stalks  alone. 

2 Vermont  Report,  1891. 
^Wisconsin  Report,  1891. 


CORN  173 

preserving  meat  and  hay  by  dpying,  and  in  preserving 
many  articles  by  cold  storage.  Hay  is  well  preserved  by 
drying,  but  corn  fodder  retains  so  much  water  that  when 
put  in  a  barn  or  stack  it  will  usually  spoil.  Certain  sub- 
stances prevent  the  action  of  decay  organisms.  These 
preservatives  are  usually  harmful  to  men  and  animals, 
so  that  this  is  not  a  very  desirable  method  of  preserving. 
Salt  is  satisfactory  for  preserving  meat  and  some  other 
things,  because  the  harmful  excess  of  it  can  be  washed 
out.  A  fourth  method  of  preserving  is  that  used  in  can- 
ning fruit.  This  is  the  principle  employed  in  the  silo. 
By  heating  fruit  so  as  to  kill  the  decay  organisms  and 
then  sealing  it  air-tight,  so  that  no  more  can  get  in,  it 
may  be  preserved  indefinitely. 

In  the  early  attempts  to  keep  silage,  it  was  placed  in 
pits  or  tanks  and  sealed  with  earth  or  other  material, 
and  was  cooked  with  steam.  Later  it  was  found  to  keep 
nearly  as  well  when  merely  packed  in  the  silo.  Decay 
begins  at  once,  and  as  a  result  the  silage  becomes  very 
hot.  This  decay  uses  up  the  air  in  the  silo  and  changes 
it  to  carbon  dioxid.  This  process  continues  until  the  heat 
and  the  exhaustion  of  the  air  stop  the  decay.  The  silage 
will  then  keep  indefinitely,  provided  no  air  can  get  into 
it.  That  on  the  top  of  the  silo  or  near  any  leaks  will  spoil. 
As  soon  as  the  silo  is  filled,  it  is  well  to  begin  feeding 
from  it.  If  this  is  not  done,  it  may  be  covered  with  chaff 
and  well  wet  down.  Or  the  corn  may  be  husked  from  the 
last  that  is  put  in  and  the  silage  itself  act  as  cover;  several 
inches  on  the  surface  will  spoil.  There  should  not  be  too 
much  surface  area  per  cow,  or  it  will  spoil  while  being  fed. 

162.  The  Silo.    Any  kind  of  material  may  be  used  for 


174  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

building  a  silo.  The  essential  point  is  that  it  be  air-tight 
at  the  sides  and  bottom.  Cement,  stone,  and  brick  are 
sometimes  used,  but  they  are  all  more  expensive  than 
wood.  There  are  two  common  methods  of  wood  con- 
struction. In  one,  vertical  posts  are  sheathed  on  the  in- 
side and  outside — the  sheathing  acting  as  hoops  to  main- 
tain the  circular  position.  The  other  type  is  more  common. 
It  is  made  of  two-inch  planks  that  are  matched  together 
and  held  by  hoops  in  the  form  of  a  tank.  The  hoops  may 
be  tightened  by  means  of  burs.  The  foundation  should 
be  of  cement.  Wooden  silos  may  be  constructed  com- 
plete for  $1.50  to  $2  per  ton  of  capacity. 

The  deeper  the  silo,  the  cheaper  the  construction  for 
a  given  capacity,  and  the  better  the  silage  keeps,  because 
that  in  the  bottom  is  packed  harder.  A  silo  that  is  32 
feet  deep  will  hold  twice  as  much  as  one  that  is  20  feet 
deep.    Ordinarily,  a  silo  should  be  at  least  24  feet  deep. 

A  silo  is  not  likely  to  be  profitable  if  there  are  not 
at  least  ten  cattle  to  be  fed.  Each  cow  will  eat  about 
half  a  ton  a  month.  The  required  capacity  can  therefore 
be  figured  from  the  number  of  cows. 

163.  Growing  Corn  for  the  Silo.  When  corn  is  grown 
for  the  silo,  it  is  usually  planted  in  drills  and  thicker 
than  when  grown  for  grain.  The  distance  at  which  the 
total  yield  of  grain  is  greatest  is  probably  best.  This 
results  in  some  ''nubbins,"  but  they  are  as  desirable  as 
large  ears,  provided  the  total  yield  of  grain  is  not  decreased. 
It  is  not  desirable  to  plant  so  thick  as  to  decrease  the 
yield  of  grain. 

Corn  should  be  cut  for  the  silo  when  fully  glazed.  At 
this  time  the  kernels  will  all  be  dented  and  a  few  of  the 


CORN 


175 


lower  leaves  will  be  dead.  The  table  shows  that  in  the 
milk  stage  the  corn  weighs  more  than  when  glazed.,  but 
there  is  GO  per  cent  more  dry  matter  at  the  later  stage. 
The  difference  is  water.  If  put  in  the  silo  in  the  milk  stage 
or  when  ripe,  the  corn  does  not  keep  so  well  as  when 
glazed: 

Yield  of  Corn  When  Cut  at  Different  Stages^ 


Stage  of  growth 


Fully  tasseled 

Fully  silked 

Kernels,  milk  stage 
Kernels,  glazed. .  .  . 
Ripe 


Yield  of 

corn 
per  acre 


Tons 
9.0 
12.9 
16.3 
16.1 
14.2 


Water 
per  acre 


Tons 
8.2 
11.3 
14.0 
12.5 
10.2 


Dry 
matter 
per  acre 


Tons 
0.8 
1.5 
2.3 
3.6 
4.0 


The  large  weight  in  the  milk  stage  deceives  many  per- 
sons as  to  the  best  variety  to  grow.  Farmers  in  the  North 
often  grow  a  variety  that  does  not  become  glazed  before 
frost.  Such  a  variety  may  grow  very  large,  but  the  yield 
of  dry  matter  will  not  be  so  great  as  that  of  a  variety  that 
matures  to  this  stage  before  frost.  The  larger  the  variety 
the  better,  so  long  as  this  stage  is  reached. 

Even  if  the  right  variety  is  planted  in  northern  United 
States,  there  will  be  short  seasons  when  it  will  be  in  dan- 
ger of  frosts.  If  there  is  danger  of  a  frost,  will  it  pay  to 
cut  the  corn,  or  will  it  be  better  to  wait  for  it  to  mature 
and  risk  the  frost?  The  Vermont  Station  tested  this  mat- 
ter. Part  of  a  field  was  cut  October  7,  when  a  frost  was 
expected.  The  remainder  was  allowed  to  grow  until 
October  23,  when  it  was  killed  by  a  hard  frost.    The  two 

iNew  York  State  Station,  Report,  18S9. 


176  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

Effect  of  Frost  on  Corn  for  Silage 


- 

Date  cut 

October  7 

October  23 

Frost  injury 

None 
Late  milk 
22,300  pounds 
5,642  pounds 

Hard  frosted 

Ripeness. . 

Glazed 

Yield  per  acre. 

22,750  pounds 
6,506  pounds 

Dry  matter  per  acre 

The  frosted  corn  gave  3  per  cent  less  milk  per  100  pounds  of  dry 
matter. 

The  frosted  corn  gave  15  per  cent  more  y'eld  of  dry  matter. 
The  frosted  corn  gave  12  per  cent  more  n  ilk  per  acre  of  corn. 

lots  were  fed  to  cows  for  comparison.  The  frosted  corn 
was  not  quite  so  good  feed,  but  there  was  15  per  cent 
more  dry  matter,  and  the  result  was  12  per  cent  more 
milk  per  acre  of  corn.  It  seems  that  one  should  try  to 
avoid  a  frost,  but  that  if  corn  has  not  matured  it  is  better 
to  risk  a  frost  than  to  cut  the  corn  much  too  green. 

164.  Feeding  Silage.  Silage  is  not  much  used  where 
hay  is  very  cheap.  It  is  not  used  extensively  for  fatten- 
ing cattle,  but  experiments  have  shown  that  it  is  a  good 
feed  for  that  purpose.  It  is  also  good  for  sheep,  but  is  not 
fed  to  horses.  Its  greatest  use  is  as  a  food  for  winter 
dairies. 

There  is  some  prejudice  against  milk  from  silage-fed 
cows.  One  of  the  largest  milk  firms  in  New  York  City 
refuses  to  buy  silage  milk.  This  prejudice  does  not  seem 
to  be  warranted  by  the  facts.  Rotten  silage  or  rotten 
hay  may  affect  the  milk,  particularly  if  they  are  fed  be- 
fore milking,  so  that  the  odors  are  in  the  air  ready  to  be 
absorbed  by  the  milk;  but,  under  ordinary  conditions, 
silage  does  not  give  the  milk  a  bad  flavor.    The  Illinois 


CORN  177 

Experiment  Station  gave  silage  and  non-silage  milk  to 
372  persons  to  be  tested  without  knowledge  of  its  source. 
Sixty  per  cent  preferred  the  siiage  milk,  29  per  cent  pre- 
ferred the  non-silage  milk,  and  11  per  cent  had  no  choice. 

165.  Uses  of  Corn.  The  chief  use  of  corn  is  as  a  food 
for  farm  animals.  The  enormous  meat-producing  indus- 
try of  the  United  States  is  based  on  corn,  grass  and  alfalfa. 
A  large  amount  of  corn  is  also  used  as  human  food,  par- 
ticularly in  the  South  and  in  the  regions  where  wheat 
is  less  plentiful. 

Many  products  are  also  manufactured  from  corn.  It 
is  the  chief  source  of  alcohol  and  whiskey.  It  is  the  cheap- 
est material  in  America  for  making  denatured  alcohol. 
Some  of  the  products  are  malt  liquors,  glucose,  corn  starch, 
corn  oil.  Less  important  products  are  paper  made  from 
husks  and  stalks,  explosives  from  the  pith,  packing  for 
w^ar  vessels  from  the  pith,  corn-cob  pipes.  The  pith  has 
the  property  of  expanding  when  wet,  so  that  it  will  stop 
leaks  in  a  vessel  when  pierced.  Some  counties  in  Mis- 
souri grow  a  special  variety  with  large  cobs  for  corn- 
cob pipes.  Some  of  the  chief  by-products  are  gluten 
meal  and  distilled  grains,  which  are  used  as  stock  foods. 

The  proportion  of  the  corn  that  is  fed  to  stock  is  much 
greater  in  states  west  of  Chicago  than  it  is  in  Illinois. 
This  is  because  it  is  cheaper  to  ship  the  meat  produced 
by  a  bushel  of  corn  than  it  is  to  ship  the  corn.  A  bushel 
of  corn  will  produce  10  to  11  pounds  of  pork.  Instead  of 
shipping  five  or  six  pounds  of  corn,  a  farmer  can  feed  it 
to  a  hog  and  have  only  one  pound  to  ship.    (See  page  357.) 

Less  than  2  per  cent  of  the  corn  crop  of  the  United  States 
is  exported,   while   over   one-third   of  the   wheat   crop   is 


178  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

exported,  either  as  grain  or  as  flour.  This  has  an  impor- 
tant significance.  It  means  that  nearly  all  of  our  corn  is 
fed  in  this  country,  so  that  it  results  in  manure-produc- 
tion for  the  maintenance  of  the  productiveness  of  our 
farms.  A  relatively  small  amount  of  wheat  is  used  for 
animals,  so  that  wheat  farms  usually  have  too  little  manure 
to  keep  up  the  productivity. 

WHEAT 

166.  Importance  of  Wheat.  Long  before  men  began 
to  record  history,  they  learned  to  raise  wheat.  It  is  the 
most  important  human  food  and  the  one  that  is  most 
universally   liked. 


Europe  1,765 
North 
America  760 

Asia   .    .  446 

South 
America  155 

Austral- 
asia   .   .    64 

Africa .    .    51 

Fig.  85.     Wheat  crop  of  the  world  in  millions  of  bushels.     Average  for  five 
years  (1903-07). 

Nearly  all  of  the  wheat  crop  of  the  world  is  used  as 
human  food.  This  is  not  because  it  is  not  good  for  domes- 
tic animals,  but  because  men  prefer  it  to  other  grain, 
and  hence  make  the  price  too  high  to  allow  of  its  general 
use  as  a  stock  food.  The  demand  for  it  as  human  food  is 
constantly  increasing.  As  fast  as  men  or  nations  become 
wealthy  enough  to  afford  it,  they  seem  instinctively  to 
demand  ''white  bread."  The  peasants  of  Russia  and  of 
parts  of  Europe  are  compelled  to  eat  rye,  barley,  millet, 
etc.,   because  they   are   cheaper;   those  of  Asia  eat  rice, 


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WHEAT  179 

but  as  soon  as  these  people  become  wealthy  enough  they 
demand  wheat.  One  reason  why  wheat  is  so  highly 
esteemed  is  because  it  makes  light  bread  and  can  be 
cooked  in  so  many  forms.  This  factor  depends  on  the 
gluten  that  it  contains.  Chemically,  wheat  does  not  seem 
to  be  much  better  than  some  other  foods,  but  it  is  prob- 
able that  it  contains  s^me  substance  that  makes  it  more 
palatable  and  healthful.  Some  recent  investigations  seem 
to  indicate  that  this  is  the  case. 

The  wheat  crop  of  the  world  is  very  differently  dis- 
tributed from  the  corn  crop.  Europe  produces  twice  as 
much  as  North  America.  Europe  secures  about  twice 
the  yield  per  acre,  so  that  it  is  able  to  compete  with  Amer- 
ica in  wheat-production. 

In  this  country,  wheat  is  largely  grown  on  new  lands 
by  a  one-crop  system.  This  usually  ceases  to  be  prof- 
itable after  wheat  has  been  grown  30  to  60  years,  so 
that  the  wheat  region  continues  to  move  westward. 
Considerable  wheat  is  also  grown  in  crop-rotation  in  the 
older  sections.  The  regions  that  are  now  being  exploited 
by  wheat-production  are  western   Canada  and  Argentina. 

167.  Types  of  Wheat.  There  are  six  rather  distinct 
types  of  wheat  from  the  commercial  standpoint:  soft 
winter  wheat,  semi-hard  winter  wheat,  hard  winter  wheat, 
soft  spring  wheat,   hard  spring  wheat,   macaroni   wheat. 

The  wheats  of  the  humid  region  are  soft,  those  of  the 
drier  regions  are  hard.  The  hard  spring  wheats  of  the 
Dakotas  and  Canada  and  the  hard  winter  wheats  of 
Kansas  and  Nebraska  are  highly  prized  for  flour.  The 
best  grades  of  flour  are  made  from  the  hard  wheats  or 
from   mixtures  of  these  with  the  soft  varieties.    Durum 


180 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


^/^^^=^t^ 


Fig.  87. 


or  macaroni  wheat  is  the  hardest  of  all.  It  is  exported 
for  the  manufacture  of  macaroni  and  is  coming  to  be  used 
for  flour. 

The  introduction  of  the  Turkish  varieties  has  made 
the  production  of  wheat  profitable  in  Kansas,  Nebraska 
and  other  states  where  the  soft  winter  varieiies  are  not 
successful.  Durum  wheats  will  grow  with  even  less  rain- 
fall. The  recent  intro- 
duction of  this  type  has 
added  thousands  of 
acres  of   semi-arid  land 

A  planker,  for  crushing  clods  ^^    ^j^^    ^\i^2X    area. 

168.  Culture.  Wheat  lends  itself  to  machine-farming 
better  than  most  crops.  Nearly  all  the  ''bonanza"  farms 
with  their  large  machinery  are  wheat  farms.  Still,  a  large 
part    of    the    world's    wheat    crop    is    cut    with    a    hand 

sickle. 

Wheat  is  better  adapted  to  short  seasons  than  is  corn, 

hence  it   grows  farther  north.     It   completes   its   growth 
before    the    severest   sum- 
mer droughts  occur,  hence 
it  can  grow  in  regions  too 
dry  for  corn. 

Some  of  the  best  wheat 
soils  are  clay  loams  and 
clays — soils  that  are  not 
best  for  corn.  In  regions  fig 
where  the  climate  is  suit- 
able for  corn,  the  loamy  soils  are  devoted  to  corn,  not 
because  they  will  not  raise  wheat  but  because  corn  pays 
better. 


A  spring-tooth  harrow.    Particu- 
larly useful  on  stony  land 


OATS  181 

Land  for  wheat  is  usually  plowed,  although  it  is  some- 
times disked.  Early  plowing  for  fall-sown  wheat  is  much 
to  be  preferred,  on  account  of  the  control  of  weeds  and 
conservation  of  the  rainfall.  Many  experimental  tests  of 
drilling  and  broad-cast  sowing  have  been  made.  The 
drilled  wheat  has  almost  invariably  given  better  yields. 

The  question  of  depth  of  planting,  and  advantages  of 
fall  and  spring  plowing  have  been  discussed  under  corn. 
The  same  principles  apply  to  growing  spring  wheat. 

OATS 

169.  Oats  thrive  best  in  a  cool,  moist  climate.  They 
will  grow  farther  north  than  either  corn  or  wheat.  For 
both  of  these  reasons,  the  oat  crop  of  Europe  is  much 
greater  than  that  of  the  United  States.  Oats  will  also 
produce  something  of  a  crop  on  land  that  is  too  poor 
to  produce  corn  or  wheat.  Oats  are  usually  given  the  least 
fertilizer  of  any  crop  in  the  rotation ;  not  because  they 
do  not  respond  to  fertilizers,  but  because  they  will  grow 
without  them.  Too  much  nitrogen  in  the  soil  is  likely 
to  make  them  lodge,  hence  manure  or  nitrogenous  fertili- 
zers must  be  used  sparingly. 

Many  oats  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  oatmeal. 
They  are  highly  esteemed  for  horse  feed.  The  average 
price  of  oats  in  New  York  for  ten  years  has  been  1.12 
cents  per  pound,  while  the  average  price  of  corn  has 
been  .96  cents  per  pound.  The  grain  of  oats  costs  still 
more.  About  one-third  of  oats  is  hull,  which  has  about 
the  same  value  as  oat  straw.  If  we  exclude  the  hufl,  the 
price  of  the  grain  in  oats  has  cost  about  75  per  cent  more 


182  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

than  corn.  This  difference  is  because  oats  are  so  much 
preferred  as  horse  feed.  Corn  seems  to  be  as  good  and 
much  more  economical  for  farm   horses.^ 

A  large  part  of  the  oats  in  America  are  grown  without 
plowing  the  land.  The  pats  are  either  cultivated  or  disked 
in  on  corn  ground.    This  reduces  the  cost  of  production. 

These  methods  produce 
good  crops  in  the  corn- 
belt.  Plowing  is  best  on 
heavy  soils. 

Oats    are    often    mixed 
with  other   crops,  such  as 
Fig.  89.    A  disc-harrow  hs^vXej  and  field  peas.    This 

is  a  common  practice  in  New  York  and  Canada.  In  these 
sections,  the  mixture  gives  a  larger  yield  than  any  one 
alone.  A  common  mixture  is  half  oats  and  half  barley. 
When  peas  are  included,  one  bushel  of  each  of  the  three 
are  often  sown  per  acre. 

MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES 

170.  Cultural  Methods.  The  hay  and  pasture  plants 
were  the  last  to  receive  attention  from  mankind,  and  are 
yet  the  crops  that  are  likely  to  be  poorly  treated.  It  is 
sometimes  said  that  a  good  farmer  can  be  told  by  his 
pasture.  This  is  because  the  pasture  is  the  last  thing  to 
receive  attention.  If  his  pasture  is  cared  for,  everything 
else  must  be. 

The  grasses  and  clovers  are  usually  sown  with  small 
grain.  In  New  England  they  are  often  sown  with  corn. 
Some  farmers  plow  the  land  for  the  grass  crop  and  seed 

^Ohio  Bulletin  No.  195 


MEADOWS   AND  PASTURES 


183 


without  a  grain  crop.  In  humid  regions,  good  stands 
are  usually  secured  when  seeded  with  rye  or  wheat,  and 
fairly  good  stands  with  barley,  but  when  seeded  with 
oats,  the  stand  of  grass  is  likely  to  be  poor.  This  is  be- 
cause the  oats  take  so  much  water  from  the  soil  (page  67), 
because  they  shade  the  ground  so  much,  and  because  they 
are  cut  later  in  the  season.  The  small  grass  and  clover 
plants  are  likely  to  be  smothered  out  or  to  be  killed  by 
drought.  The  drier  the  year  or  the  region,  and  the  poorer 
the  land,  the  more  injury  the  grain  crop  does.  Some 
farmers  fit  the  land  again  and  seed  after  the  removal  of 
oats.  When  seeded  with  winter  wheat  or  rye,  the  grass 
seeds  are  usually  sown  in  the  fall  and  the  clover  seeds 
sown  in  the  spring. 

The  grass  plants  respond  to  nitrogenous  fertilizers. 
(See  Figs.  55  and  56.)  Nitrogen  promotes  vegetative 
growth;  and  it  is  vegetative  grov/th,  and  not  seed,  that 


Fig.  90.  Timothy  hay  was  cut  at  the  time  indicated,  cattle  were  allowed  to 
eat  at  will.  They  preferred  that  which  waa  cut  when  the  seed  was  just  formed. 
Missouri  Experiment  Station. 

is  wanted  for  hay.  Another  reason  why  the  grasses 
respond  to  nitrogen  is  because  they  grow  so  early  in  the 
spring,  before  the  soil  organisms  are  sufficiently  active  to 
supply  the  nitrogen.    Top-dressing  of  meadows  is  usually 


184 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


profitable  if  there  is  a  good  stand  of  grass  and  if  there  is 
sufficient  rainfall.  There  is  no  use  in  supplying  fertilizers 
for  a  four-ton  crop  when  the  climate  or  the  stand  of 
grass  limits  the  crop  to  one  ton.  The  price  of  hay  is  also 
an  important  factor.  In  the  northeastern  states,'  nitrate 
of  soda  at  the  rate  of  100  to  200  pounds  per  acre  may 
be  profitably  used  for  the  production  of  timothy.  In  New 
York,  the  use  of  this  material  usually  seems  to  be  profita- 
ble if  the  untreated  land  will  yield 
a  little  over  a  ton  of  hay.  It  is  ap- 
plied as  soon  as  the  grass  starts 
growth  in  the  spring.    Many  farmers 

f^W^^v'^'\iM\llWllEli  ^^®  ^^^^  ^-pplyiiig  manure  on  the 
hmMmmiMmM^ .  meadows  preceding  corn  rather  than 
on  the  corn  crop.  This  seems  to  be 
a  good  practice  when  it  can  be 
spread  thinly,  as  is  done  with  a 
manure  spreader.  The  corn  crop 
does  not  seem  to  be  much  poorer 
and  the  hay  is  greatly  benefited. 
Probably  the  bacterial  activity  that 
is  favored  by  the  sod  (page  120)  and 
manure  (page  119)  prepares  food 
for  the  corn  crop. 
171.  Timothy  {Phleum  pratense).  The  most  important 
hay  plant  in  America  is  timothy.  The  chief  timothy  region 
is  north  of  the  city  of  Washington  and  east  of  the  100th 
meridian.  Timothy  has  a  number  of  desirable  characters 
that  make  it  popular.  The  seed  is  cheap.  It  grows  well 
and  produces  a  good  yield  of  good  hay  the  year  after  it  is 
sown.    It  is  easily  killed  by  plowing.     No  other  grass  is  so 


Fig.  91.  Timothy  plant 
grown  from  a  single  seed — 
A  bunch  grass. 


MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES 


185 


well  adapted  to  growth  in  rotation  with  other  crops.  The 
first  two  crops  are  better  than  the  later  ones,  unless  the 
land  is  rich  or  is  made  so  by  fertilizers.  It  thrives  best  in 
a  good  soil  with  a  good  rainfall.  It  is  primarily  a  hay 
plant,  but,  since  the  seed  is  cheap  and  since  it  produces 
a  fair  crop  the  first  year,  it  is  used  in  nearly  all  pasture 
mixtures.  In  permanent  pastures  it  is  usually  displaced 
by  other  grasses  in  a  few  years.  The  seed  weighs  45 
pounds  per  bushel.  About  10  to  15  pounds  is  sown  per  acre. 
172.  Kentucky  Blue-Grass  {Poa  pratensis).  The  most 
important  pasture  grass  in  America  is  Kentucky  blue- 
grass.     It  is   of    little   value   as   a   hay   plant.      It   grows 


Fig.  92.     Kentucky  blue-grass,  grown  from  a  singls  seed.    Strongly 
stoloniferous.    Compare  with  Fig.  91 

throughout  the  timothy  region,  but  reaches  its  best  de- 
velopment a  little  south  of  the  best  timothy  section. 
It  is  very  strongly  stoloniferous  (page  38)  and  will  run 
out  most  other  plants  on  good  soils.  It  takes  two  to  three 
years  for  it  to  reach  full  development,  hence  it  is  seldom 
sown  alone.  It  is  an  early  grass,  starting  growth  early 
and  heading  out  early.    It   also  grows  well  in  the  fall. 


186  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

In  midsummer  it  makes  a  poor  growth.    The  seed  is  ex- 
pensive and  is  often  poor  in  quaUty.    The  method  of  cur- 
ing the  seed  is  such  that  it  is  often  spoiled  by  heating. 
V  ^  One  to  ten   pounds   per   acre   are 

^  ^^L       ^^^^  ^^   seeding    pastures.     It    is 

^  ^^M       sometimes  adulterated  with  Canada 

blue -grass  {Poa  compressa),  also 
called  wire  grass.  The  latter  is  a 
less  desirable  grass,  except  for  very 
poor  soils. 

173.  Red-top   {Agrostis  alba)   is 

second  in  importance  to  timothy  as 

2    a  hay  plant.    It  does  not  make  as 

(1)  Kentucky  blue-    popular  a  hay  as  timothy.    If  much 

grass.    (2)  Canada  blue-grass  ^  *^  '' 

of  it  is  mixed  with  timothy  hay,  the 
price  is  reduced.  The  chief  value  of  red-top  is  that  it  will 
grow  on  soils  that  are  too  wet,  too  acid,  or  too  poor  for 
the  growth  of  timothy.  It  is  a  shallow-rooted,  strongly 
stoloniferous  plant.  It  will  produce  hay  or  pasture  the 
year  after  seeding.  The  seed  is  not  expensive  and  is  usually 
good.  Recleaned  seed  weighs  about  35  pounds  per  bushel. 
About  15  pounds  is  sown  per  acre. 

174.  Awnless  Brome  Grass  (Bromus  inermis)  has  been 
introduced  from  the  plains  of  Russia  recently.  It  is 
strongly  stoloniferous  and  will  produce  one  or  two  good 
€rops  of  hay,  after  which  the  sod  becomes  too  dense  for 
hay  and  is  adapted  to  pasture.  It  makes  a  very  pala- 
table pasture  grass.  It  has  proved  its  value  in  the 
semi-arid  regions.  In  the  East,  it  has  not  been  thoroughly 
tested,  but  seems  promising. 

175.  Tall     Meadow     Fescue     (Festuca    elatior)     is     a 


MEADOWS   AND  PASTURES 


187 


''bunch"  grass,  about  as  stoloniferous  as  timothy.  It 
requires  about  three  years  to  form  a  good  sod.  It  is  adapted 
to  good  land.  The  seed  is  not  always  good  or  pure,  and 
is  expensive.    It  is  subject  to  rust,  the  same  rust  that 


Fig.  94.     Awnless  brome  grass 

attacks  oats,  but  it  is  a  good  pasture  grass  under  many 
conditions. 

176.  Orchard  Grass  (Dactylis  glomerata.)  is  a  tall^ 
tufted  grass.  It  is  adapted  to  deep,  rich  soils,  as  it  roots 
deeply,  yet  it  grows  on  poor  soils  to  some  extent.  It  is 
often  desirable  in  a  pasture  mixture.  The  high  price  of 
seed  and  the  seed  adulteration  seem  to  be  the  chief  causes 
for  its  limited  use. 

177.  Bermuda  Grass  {Capriola  dactylon)  is  probably 
the  best  pasture  grass  for  the  South.    It  is  very  strongly 


188 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


stoloniferous.    The  seed  is  very  scarce  and  high  in  price. 
It  is  sometimes  grown  from  cuttings  planted  several  feet 

apart. 

178.  Johnson  Grass  {Sorghum 
halepense)  is  one  of  the  best  hay 
grasses  of  the  South.  It  has  one 
very  serious  objection:  it  is  a 
bad  weed  in  cultivated  land. 
For  this  reason,  some  of  the 
states  have  laws  against  sowing 
it.  It  now  seems  that  there  are 
methods  by  which  it  can  be 
successfully  eradicated.  If  these 
methods  prove  practical,  it  will 
become  a  popular  crop  rather 
than  a  weed. 

179.  Alfalfa  {Medicauo  saliva) . 
Alfalfa,  or  lucerne,  is  probably  the  oldest  hay  plant  now 
grown.  It  came  from  Media  to  Greece,  490  B.  C.  The 
genus  name  refers  to  the  origin  in  Media. 
How  long  it  was  grown  in  Media  no  one 
knows.  It  has  been  grown  in  New  York 
for  one-hundred  years.  But  its  effective 
introduction  into  the  United  States  was 
from  Chili  to  California,  about  50  years 
ago.  Its  distribution  has  been  particularly 
rapid  during  the  past  25  years. 

180.  Value  of  Alfalfa.  The  table  on  next 
page  shows  the  total  number  of  acres  of  different  kinds 
of  hay  and  total  yields,  in  1899,  according  to  the 
Twelfth  Census: 


Fig.  95.     Orchard  grass 


Fig.  96. 

Alfalfa  blossoms 


MEADOWS   AND  PASTURES  189 

Comparison  of  Hays  Grown  in  the  United  States  in  1899 


Acres 

Yield 

Yield 
per 
acre 

Digestible 
nutrients 
per  acre 

Digest- 
ible 

protein 
per 
acre 

\lfalfa    .. 

2,094,000 

4,104,000 

31,302,000 

5,221,000 

5,167,000 

35,624,000 

2.5 
1.3 
1.1 

2,673 
1,214 
1,091 

609 

Clover 

177 

Cultivated  grasses  ^ 

62 

It  will  be  seen  that  from  half  the  area  alfalfa  gave  a 
little  more  total  yield  than  clover.  Its  composition  being 
better,  it  gave  over  twice  the  digestible  nutrients  per 
acre. 

Its  value  is  sometimes  overestimated.  It  has  almost 
the  same  composition  as  wheat  bran.  This  has  led  to  the 
common  statement  that  it  is  as  valuable  as  wheat  bran. 
This  is  not  true.  It  is  always  unsafe  to  compare  the  feed- 
ing values  of  grain  feeds  with  hay  on  the  basis  of  com- 
position only.  The  coarser  feeds  are  harder  to  digest. 
Feeding  trials  in  milk-production  on  a  commercial  scale, 
at  the  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station,  showed  that 
when  bran  cost  $22.50  per  ton,  the  hay  was  worth  $16.50 
as  a  substitute  for  it.  In  this  case,  alfalfa  hay  was  worth 
a  little  over  two-thirds  as  much  as  bran. 

One-sixth  of  the  cultivated  area  of  Argentina  is  planted 
to  alfalfa.  It  is  said  that  on  land  where  eight  acres  of 
native  grasses  were  required  per  steer,  one  acre  of  alfalfa 
is  sufficient. 

181.  Culture  of  Alfalfa.  Alfalfa  has  a  long  tap-root, 
mAich  longer  than  any  other  farm  crop,  therefore  the 
character  of  the  subsoil  and  drainage  are  of  much  im- 

'  Figured  as  timothy. 


190 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


portance.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  warm  climates,  is 
alkali-,  drought-  and  heat-resistant.  It  grows  throughout 
the  warm  season  if  there  is  sufficient  moisture.  Hence, 
it  is  possible  to  get  two  or  three  crops  in  Ontario,  Canada, 
while  in  Arizona  eight  crops  are  often  harvested. 

Failures  of  alfalfa  are  usually  due  to  one  of  the  follow- 
ing causes:  drought,  lack  of  drainage,  weeds,  lack  of  manure, 
lime  or  inoculation.  Sometimes  failure  is  due  to  poor 
seed  or  to  dodder. 

Alfalfa  is  most  hkely  to  succeed  on  a  porous,  well- 
drained  soil,  but  it  is  successful  on  some  clay  soils.    It  is 

not  a  poor-land  crop.  If 
the  soil  is  not  rich,  an 
appUcation  of  10  to  20 
tons  of  manure  should  be 
made  before  sowing  it. 

It  is  more  sensitive  to 
acidity  than  any  other 
farm  crop.  Probably  half 
of  the  soils  east  of  the 
Mississippi  river  require 
lime  for  best  success  with 
alfalfa. 

It  is  a  tender  plant 
when  young,  and  is  not 
likely  to  be  successful  if 
sown  with  a  nurse  crop  unless  all  other  conditions  are 
very  favorable.  Nearly  all  experiments  have  shown  that 
it  is  safest  to  sow  it  alone.  If  the  rainfall  and  soil  are  just 
right,  it  may  be  successful  when  sown  with  wheat,  oats,  or 
barley  but  there  is  much  risk  in  sowing  it  this  way.  Fig.  98 


Weeds.— Left,  limed;  right,  not  limed 

Fig.  97.  Influence  of  lime  on  alfalfa  and 
weeds  on  a  farm  where  lime  was  needed. 
Where  limed  there  was  no  room  for  weeds; 
when  not  limed  the  weeds  were  able  to  run 
out  the  alfalfa. 


MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES 


191 


Fig.  98.  Influence  on  alfalfa  of  seeding 
in  oats  when  other  conditions  were  unfavor- 
able. On  the  left  is  the  alfalfa  from  a  square 
rod  seeded  in  oats,  on  the  right  seeded  alone. 
When  other  conditions  are  favorable  thr 
nurse  crop  does  less  damage. 


shows  an  instance  where  entire  failure  resulted  from  sow- 
ing with  OMts.  When  conditions  are  more  favorable  it  may 
persist  in  spite  of  the  oats.    If  seeded  alone  in  the  spring, 

the  weeds  are  likely  to  

injure  it.  It  is,  there- 
fore, best  to  sow  it  in 
late  summer  or  early 
fall.  Experiments  in 
nearly  all  of  the  states 
east  of  Colorado  have 
shown  this  to  be  the 
best  time.  Where  small 
grain  or  potatoes  come 
off  the  land  in  time,  it  may  be  sown  after  these  crops. 
As  far  north  as  New  York,  it  is  usually  best  to  summer- 
fallow  the  land.  It  is  then  manured  and  Hmed  in  the 
spring  when  plowed,  if  these  treatments  are  necessary, 
and  is  kept  harrowed  and  free  from  weeds  until  about 
August  1.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  it  may  be  seeded  with 
grain  in  the  spring  and  the  grain  cut  for  hay. 

In  order  to  be  sure  that  the  seed  is  alive,  a  germina- 
tion test  should  be  made  (page  51).  The  seed  is  some- 
times adulterated  with  bur  clover,  yellow  trefoil  and 
sweet  clover.  Dodder  is  the  worst  weed  in  the  seed.  Of 
399  samples  examined  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  in  1907,  about  half  (191)  contained  dodder. 
Seed  should,  if  possible,  be  purchased  from  regions  where 
dodder  is  least  prevalent.  Before  buying  seed,  a  sample 
should  be  examined  for  dodder  seed. 

The  beginner  should  sow  at  least  25  pounds  of  good 
seed  per   acre.     Older  growers  whose   soils   are  in   condi- 


192  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

tion  for  alfalfa  may  sow  20  pounds,  or  less.    In  some  sec 
tions  as  low  as  10  pounds  are  sown. 

Inoculation  is  absolutely  necessary  for  success.  Inocu- 
lation may  take  place  naturally  or  may  have  to  be  applied. 
Soil  from  sweet  clover  will  inoculate  alfalfa.  Most  of  the 
cases  of  natural  inoculation  appear  to  be  due  to  the  pre- 
vious growth  of  sweet  clover  on  the  soil.  Common  clover 
soil  does  not  inoculate  alfalfa.  West  of  the  Mississippi 
river,  inoculation  is  not  so  often  required;  but,  east  of 
it,  probably  half  of  the  soils  require  inoculation  when 
alfalfa  is  sown  for  the  first  time. 

Even  in  fields  that  require  inoculation  for  success,  a 
few  plants  usually  become  inoculated  from  some  source. 
These  usually  look  large  and  dark  green  as  contrasted 
with  the  small  yellowish  uninoculated  ones.  If  such  a 
field  is  planted  and  reseeded,  it  is  often  well  inoculated. 
It  is,  therefore,  often  desirable  to  make  a  new  trial  on 
ground  where  alfalfa  has  thus  failed. 

Peas,  beans,  peanuts,  clover,  do  not  often  require 
inoculation.  So  far  as  we  know,  alfalfa  and  soy-beans 
are  the  only  legumes  that  require  inocuation  in  New 
York.  Alfalfa  requires  it  on  most  soils,  and  we  have  not 
yet  seen  any  soy-bean  nodules  where  the  soil  was  not  in- 
oculated. Many  examinations  have  shown  clover  to  be 
inoculated  in  all  cases,  even  on  soils  where  it  does  not  grow 
well. 

Several  methods  have  been  developed  for  inoculating 
legumes,  but  the  best  method  is  to  take  soil  from  a  field 
that  has  grown  inoculated  plants  of  the  desired  kind. 
One  or  more  bushels  of  this  soil  can  be  scattered  on  an 
acre  of  land.    This  is  an  easy  and  inexpensive  method. 


MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES  193 

Alfalfa  should  be  cut  for  hay  when  about  one-tentb 
of  the  heads  are  in  blossom.  If  allowed  to  stand  longer, 
the  hay  is  poorer,  and  the  succeeding  cuttings  are  de- 
creased. 

182.  Red  Clover  is  the  most  important  legume  in 
eastern  United  States.  There  are  two  varieties, — the 
common,  medium  or  June  clover  (Trifolium  pratense), 
and  the  mammoth,  sapling  or 
pea- vine  clover  (T.  pratense  per- 
enne).  The  former  is  smaller 
and  about  a  month  earlier  than 
the  latter.  The  mammoth 
clover  matures  with  timothy, 
which  is  a  point  of  2;reat  advan- 

^  ^      "  Fig.  99.     A   red   clover  plant, 

tage    in    hay-making.       The    two       it  does  not  reproduce  except  from 

kinds    cannot    be   distinguished 

by  their  seeds,  hence  the  difficulty  in  always  getting  the 

desired  kind. 

Red  clover  requires  good  soil.  There  are  many  farms 
that  are  now  too  poor  to  grow  it.  The  soil  should  be  well 
drained  and  should  not  be  acid.  The  first  steps  in  getting 
clover  on  most  farms  where  it  fails  are  applications  of 
lime  and  manure. 

The  root-borer  usually  kills  most  of  the  clover  the 
second  year,  but  it  does  not  prevent  the  production  of 
the  first  hay  crop. 

Clover  seed  is  about  four  times  as  expensive  as  timothy. 
Four  quarts  are  usually  sown  per  acre.  The  seed  weighs 
60  pounds  per  bushel. 

Clover  hay  usually  sells  for  about  two-thirds  as  much 
as  timothy.    Therefore,  farmers  usually  sell  timothy,  and 


194  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

feed  the  clover  and  mixed  hay.  The  chemical  analysis 
of  clover  hay  would  seem  to  make  it  as  valuable  as  timothy. 
It  is  better  for  cattle  and  sheep,  but  is  not  desirable  for 
horses.  This  is  probably  the  reason  for  the  low  price. 
Clover  seems  to  be  chiefly  responsible  for  the  disease 
of  horses  called  heaves.  It  is  said  that  heaves  does  not 
occur  in  regions  where  clover  is  not  used. 

183.  Alsike  Clover  {Trifolium  hyhridum).  This  was 
formerly  thought  to  be  a  hybrid  between  red  and  white 
clover,  hence  its  specific  name,  hybridum.  It  is  not  now 
considered  to  be  a  hybrid. 

It  is  smaller,  earlier,  and  more  decumbent  than  red 
clover.     Its   greatest  use  is  to   grow  on  soils   where  red 


Fig.  100.     A  white  clover  plant  grown  from  a  single  seed,  showing 
spreading  habit 

clover  fails  or  does  poorly.  It  will  grow  on  soils  that  are 
too  wet  or  too  dry  for  red  clover.  It  will  grow  on  more 
acid  soils  and  on  poorer  soils,  is  less  subject  to  disease, 
and  is  less  severely  injured  by  the  root-borer.  In  the 
county  where  the  writer  lives,  it  is  the  only  clover  sown 
on  the  poorest  and  most  acid  soils.    On  the  fairly  good 


MEADOWS   AND  PASTURES  195 

soils,  it  is  mixed  with  red  clover.      On  the  richest  soils, 
red  clover  is  often  sown  alone. 

184.  White  Clover  (Trifolium  repens).  This  plant  is 
so  small  that  it  is  of  no  value  for  hay  purposes.  But 
it  is  a  very  desirable  pasture  plant.  It  supplements  Ken- 
tucky blue-grass  for  pasture,  as  red  clover  supplements 
timothy  for  hay.  White  clover  stems  spread  about  on 
the  ground  and  take  root,  so  that  a  single  plant  may  pro- 
duce many  plants.  (See  Figs.  14  and  100.)  The  other 
clovers  do  not  have  the  power  to  spread  except  from 
the  seed.  White  clover  will  grow  on  poorer  soils  than 
either  of  the  other  clovers.  A  few  pounds  of  it  should 
be  sown  in  pasture  mixtures  for  permanent  pastures. 

185.  Mixtures  of  Grasses  and  Clovers.  Alfalfa  is  usu- 
ally sown  alone.  The  other  grasses  and  clovers  are  com- 
monly used  in  mixtures.  Mixtures  for  hay  should  mature 
at  the  same  time.  For  pastures,  they  should  mature  at 
different  times.  A  plant  that  does  not  thrive  alone  on 
the  soil  will  be  of  little  value  in  a  mixture. 

The  advantages  of  a  mixture  are  that  the  roots  of  dif- 
ferent plants  do  not  occupy  the  same  areas  of  the 
soil;  hence  the  soil  may  be  more  fully  used  by  growing 
deep-  and  shallow-rooted  plants  together,  as  red  clover 
and  timothy.  Some  seasons  favor  certain  of  the  plants 
and  some  favor  others;  when  red  and  alsike  clover  are 
sown  with  timothy,  the  clover  is  sometimes  chiefly  red 
and  sometimes,  on  the  same  farm,  chiefly  alsike.  In  most 
fields  there  are  irregularities  of  soil;  by  sowing  a  mixture, 
each  soil  variation  will  be  covered  with  the  type  that 
thrives  best  on  it.  In  pastures,  a  mixture  will  furnish 
grasses    that    grow    at    different    seasons    of    the    year. 


196  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

thus   furnishing    more    uniform    pasture    throughout    the 

season. 

For  hay  production,  where  the  meadows  are  left  for 

one  to  three  years,  a  good  mixture  to  be  sown  per  acre  is: 

Timothy 15  pounds 

Mammoth  red  clover 6  pounds 

Alsike  clover 4  pounds 

Such  a  seeding  will  usually  produce  hay  that  is  half 
clover  the  first  year  and  nearly  clear  timothy  in  later 
years.  If  the  land  is  very  poor,  10  pounds  of  timothy, 
5  pounds  of  red-top  and  4  pounds  of  alsike  may  be  used. 
On  the  poorest,  most  acid  soils,  red-top  should  be  sown 
alone. 

For  pastures  on  good  land  a  mixture  something  like 

the  following  may  be  used.     This  may  be  cut    for  hay 

for  two  years  and  used  for  pasture  thereafter: 

Timothy 10  pounds 

Mammoth  red  clover 4  pounds 

Alsike  clover 3*  pounds 

White  clover 2  pounds 

Kentucky  blue-grass    3  pounds 

Tall  meadow  fescue   2  pounds 

Orchard  grass 2  pounds 

If  the  land  will  produce  alfalfa,  two  pounds  of  this 
should  be  included.  The  blue-grass  and  white  clover 
will  usually  be  the  most  prominent  plants  after  a  few  years. 

For  pasture  on  land  that  is  very  poor  or  acid,  it  will 

not  pay  to  spend  so  much  for  seed  unless  fertilizers  are 

used.    Some  mixture  like  the  following  may  be  used: 

Timothy 5  pounds 

Red-top   5  pounds 

Alsike  clover 5  pounds 

White  clover 2  pounds 


Fig.  101.     A  good  pasture  in  New  York,  thirty  years  old.   Cared  for  as 
suggested  on  page  197 


» ',  Fia.  i02.  ^  T'ie  coposite  side  of  the  same  hill  as  Fig.  101.  The  cows  have 
developed  this  pasture  by  exterminating  the  plants  that  they  like  and  saving 
the  weeds  for  seed. 


MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES  197 

Any  of  the  other  plants  that  will  grow  on  the  land 
should  be  included.  Such  a  pasture  will  soon  be  chiefly 
red-top  and  white  clover  if  the  land  is  very  poor. 

Professor  Roberts,  who  developed  the  Roberts'  pas- 
ture (Fig.  101),  recommended  5  pounds  of  timothy,  6 
pounds  of  red  clover,  4  pounds  of  alsike,  and  3|  pounds 
each  of  Kentucky  blue-grass,  red-top,  orchard  grass  and 
tall  meadow  fescue. 

A  good  mixture  for  a  lawn  is  timothy,  10  pounds; 
red-top,  10  pounds ;  blue-grass,  20  pounds,  and  white 
clover,  5  pounds  per  acre.  The  timothy  and  red-top  will 
make  a  cover  while  the  blue-grass  and  white  clover  are 
becoming  estabhshed.  In  arid  regions,  native  buffalo 
grass  makes  a  good  lawn. 

186.  Management  of  Permanent  Pastures.  Temporary 
pastures  are  usually  the  second  or  later  year's  growth 
on  land  that  was  seeded  for  hay,  using  only  timothy  and 
clover.  Too  frequently  a  permanent  pasture  is  made  by 
neglecting  such  a  field.  In  time,  blue  grass  and  white 
clover  will  appear,  but  in  the  meantime  numerous  weeds 
will   also  have  become  established. 

As  stock  graze  in  the  pasture,  they  select  the  plants 
that  they  like  and  allow  the  undesirable  kinds  to  grow  and 
produce  seed.  This  is  really  the  cultivation  of  pasture 
weeds.  The  results  are  easily  seen  by  looking  at  the  per- 
manent pastures  that  one  sees  in  almost  any  community. 

If  one  is  to  maintain  a  good  pasture,  the  weeds  that 
the  cow  saves  for  seed  must  be  cut  and  the  desirable  plants 
must  be  encouraged.  The  weeds  should  be  mowed  each 
year  before  they  have  gone  to  seed.  This  can  be  done  at 
hay-making   time,    during   rainy    weather.     Occasionally, 


198  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

some  more  seed  should  be  scattered  on  the  bare  places. 
Sometimes  it  is  well  to  go  over  the  pasture  in  the  spring 
with  a  cutaway  harrow  or  disk.  On  most  farms  a  top- 
dressing  of  manure  or  fertilizer  will  be  needed  every  three 
to  five  years.  Coarse,  strawy  manure,  or  any  kind  of  rub- 
bish that  is  undesirable  for  the  regular  fields  may  be 
scattered  on  the  bare  spots  in  the  pasture. 

COTTON 

By  CHARLES  H.  ALVORD 
Pitrfessor  of  Agriculture,  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  of  Texas 

187.  Importance  of  Cotton.  Cotton  is  the  most  im- 
portant fiber  crop  grown.  It  is  valuable  not  only  for  the 
fiber  or  hnt  which  it  produces,  but  for  each  pound  of 
lint  there  is  also  produced  an  average  of  two  pounds  of 
seed,  which  is  valuable  for  manufacturing  purposes  and 
also  as  a  food  for  live  stock.  Thread  manufactured  from 
cotton  Hnt  is  used  in  manufacturing  all  kinds  of  cloth, 
from  the  coarsest  ducking,  used  in  making  tents  and 
sail-cloth,  to  the  finest  quality  of  ''lawn."  Its  use  is  in- 
dispensable to  the  comfort  of  the  human  race,  and  there 
is  no  similar  material  produced  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
substitute  for  any  very  great  percentage  of  it.  If  the 
farmers  of  America  should  cease  growing  cotton,  there 
would  be  no  other  available  material  with  which  to  clothe 
the  people  of  this  country.  Because  of  its  great  import- 
ance to  the  industrial  welfare  of  the  people,  this  plant  is 
famiUarly  called  ''King  Cotton."  The  total  farm  value  of 
the  cotton  lint  and  seed  produced  in  the  United  States  in 
1907  was  estimated  at  $675,000,000,  and  of  this  amount 
$482,000,000   worth  of   cotton  and  cotton-seed   products 


COTTON  199 

were  exported.^  Galveston  and  New  Orleans  are  the  great 
cotton  ports  of  this  country,  the  shipments  from  Galveston 
alone  amounting  to  over  $100,000,000  worth  of  cotton  per 
year. 

The  estimated  annual  production  of  cotton  in  the 
world  in  1906  was  about  21,000,000  bales,  each  weigh- 
ing 500  pounds.  Of  this  vast  amount,  over  three-fifths 
was  produced  in  the  United  States,  south  of  a  line 
drawn  from  Norfolk,  Va.,  to  Memphis,  Tenn.,  and  west 
to  Oklahoma  City  and  El  Paso,  Texas.  This  means  that 
the  world  is  dependent  on  this  section  of  the  United  States 
for  its  cotton,  and  indicates  the  great  possibilities  which 
can  be  attained  by  the  farmers  of  the  South  who  carefully 
cultivate  this  crop. 

188.  Historical.  The  cotton  plant  is  of  very  ancient 
origin,  antedating  all  recorded  history.  It  is  supposed 
to  have  originated  in  India,  but  China  may  have  been 
its  original  home.^  It  is  spoken  of  in  ancient  history  as 
tree  wool.  The  people  of  India  acquired  great  skill  in  the 
weaving  of  cloth  from  the  fiber  of  the  cotton  plant.  An- 
cient historians  and  travelers  mention  plants  similar  to 
cotton  in  the  various  countries  of  southern  Asia  and 
Africa,  and  it  is  also  known  that  Columbus  and  other  ex- 
plorers who  visited  the  western  hemisphere  found  native 
cotton  growing  in  the  West  Indian  islands  and  in  South 
America  and  in  the  territory  now  controlled  by  Mexico. 

189.  Development  in  the  United  States.  Cotton  was 
first   cultivated   in   the   United   States   in   the   colony   of 

^Yearbook  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1907,  pp.  15 
and  22. 

'Cotton  is  mentioned  as  a  tribute  from  southern  China  to  the  ruJer 
3,000  years  before  Christ.  Thesis  in  Cornell  University  Library,  by 
Koliang  Yih. 


200  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

Virginia  in  the  year  1621.  It  has  always  been  the  chief 
money  crop  of  the  farmers  of  the  southern  states,  and  is 
so  closely  identified  with  the  prosperity  of  the  people 
that  the  welfare  of  all  kinds  of  business  depends  very 
much  upon  the  success  of  the  cotton  crop.  For  a  great 
many  years,  Mississippi  was  the  chief  cotton-producing 
state,  but  within  the  last  ten  years  the  opening  of  new 
lands  in  western  Texas  and  Oklahoma  has  greatly  ex- 
tended the  area  of  land  devoted  to  cotton  culture.  Cotton 
occupies  the  same  place  in  the  southern  states  that  Indian 
corn  occupies  in  the  central  states  of  the  Mississippi 
valley,  and  both  crops  seem  peculiarly  adapted  to  the 
United  States.  Barley,  wheat  and  oats  are  grown  all  over 
the  world,  but  corn  and  cotton  are  not  grown  in  other 
countries  so  extensively  as  they  are  in  the  United  States. 
190.  Habits  of  Growth.  In  the  tropical  countries  there 
are  perennial  types  of  cotton,  some  kinds  growing  20  or 
more  feet  in  height;  but  iu  the  United  States  all  of  the 
varieties  are  annual,  growing  in  the  form  of  a  small  shrub 
two  to  eight  feet  in  height,  depending  on  the  variety, 
the  amount  of  rainfall  during  the  summer,  and  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  soil.  The  plant  is  very  tender  when 
it  first  appears  above  the  ground,  but,  if  the  weather  is 
warm,  it  grows  robust  very  rapidly.  The  tap-root  extends 
deep  into  the  soil,  and  the  stalk  above  ground  becomes 
tough  and  woody.  There  are  many  branches,  called  pri- 
mary and  secondary.  The  primary  branches  are  longest 
near  the  ground.  The  flower-buds  appear  in  the  axils  of 
the  leaves  on  secondary  branches,  and  are  called  ' 'squares." 
The  flowers  are  large  in  size  and  are  short-lived,  lasting 
only  one  or  two  days.   When  first  opened,  they  are  a  white 


COTTON  201 

or  pale  yellow.  The  second  day  they  turn  somewhat  red 
in  color  and  soon  drop  off,  leaving  a  small  boll  which 
contains  the  seed.  This  boll  continues  to  increase  in  size 
until  the  seeds  which  it  contains  mature.  It  then  breaks 
open  and  the  soft  white  lint  which  surrounds  the  seed 
is  exposed.  The  boll  contains  three  to  five  compartments. 
When  it  breaks  open,  each  compartment  opens  separ- 
ately. The  seed  and  lint  contained  in  each  separate  com- 
partment is  called  a  ''lock."  Each  lock  contains  six 
to  ten  seeds. 

191.  Types  of  Cotton.^  Sea-island  cotton  is  adapted  to 
low,  moist  soil  and  a  humid  atmosphere.  Experiment 
station  reports  indicate  that  certain  varieties  of  sea- 
island  cotton  have  been  grown  west  of  the  coastal  plain, 
and  in  irrigated  sections,  but,  for  the  most  part,  the  cul- 
ture of  this  type  is  limited  to  regions  adjacent  to  the 
coasts  of  Georgia,  South  Carolina  and  Florida.  This 
cotton  has  a  naked,  black  seed,  and  flowers  that  are  yel- 
low when  they  first  open,  but  gradually  turn  purple. 
It  does  not  produce  so  much  lint  per  acre  as  the  upland 
cotton,  but,  because  of  its  greater  length  and  fine 
quality,  it  sells  for  a  higher  price  per  pound. 

There  are  two  accepted  types  of  upland  cotton — G. 
herhaceum  and  G.  hirsutum.  These  types  include  all  the 
varieties  which  are  commonly  called  short-staple  cotton. 
The  flowers  are  white  or  pale  yellow  when  first  opened, 
and  turn  to  a  reddish  tinge.    The  seeds  are  covered  with 

^Cotton  belongs  to  the  family  of  plants  called  Malvaceae  and  to  the 
genus  Gossypium.  There  are  many  species  belonging  to  this  genus  among 
the  most  important  of  which  are  the  upland  cotton  (G.  herhaceum  and  hir- 
sutum),  sea-island  cotton  {G.  Barbadense),  tree  cotton  (G.  arboreum)  and  India 
cotton  (G.  neglectum).  Of  these  only  the  upland  and  sea-island  cottons  are 
cultivated  in  the  United  States. 


202 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 


fuzz  and  are  green  in  color.  They  are  flattened  somewhat 
and  oblong  in  shape,  and  about  the  size  of  a  white  navy- 
bean.  Because  of  the  fuzz  or  lint  left-  on  the  seed,  they 
are  somewhat  bulky,  weighing  33  pounds  to  the  measured 
bushel. 

The  lint  which  sur- 
rounds the  seed  is  ex- 
ceedingly fine  in  texture, 
and  varies  in  length  from 
seven-eighths  of  an  inch 
in  upland  cotton  to  two 
and  one-half  inches  in 
sea-is' and  cotton.  Some 
varieties  of  upland  cot- 
ton have  been  selected 
for  long  fiber.  When  the 
lint  produced  averages 
over  one  and  one-fourth 
inches  in  length  of  fiber, 
it  is  called  '^ong  staple." 
The  longer  fibers  are 
much  more  valuable 
than  the  shorter  ones, 
and  '4ong  staple"  sells  for  a  higher  price  in  the  market. 
Other  desirable  qualities  of  the  Unt  in  addition  to  length 
are  (1)  fineness,  (2)  strength,  (3)  uniformity  of  color. 

192.  Breeding  and  Selecting  Cotton.  From  the  fore- 
going paragraphs,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  cotton  plant 
may  be  greatly  changed  and  improved  by  careful  selec- 
tion and  breeding.  Selection  is  comparatively  a  simple 
matter,  but,  because  of  cross-fertilization,  which  probably 


Fig.  103.  An  early,  rapid  fruiting,  pro- 
ductive type  of  cotton  plant,  with  low  fruit 
limbs,  short  joints  and  continuous  growing 
long  fruit  limbs.  Leaves  removed.  (After 
Bennett.) 


COTTON 


203 


often  occurs,  the  breeding  of  cotton  is  more  difficult. 
Because  of  the  fact  that  the  cotton  stalks  are  a 
burden  to  the  soil,  exhausting  its  moisture  and  plant- 
food,  and  a  bother  to  the  farmer  when  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  get  the  land  in 
condition  for  the  suc- 
ceeding crop,  it  is  desir- 
able to  produce  the 
maximum  number  of 
bolls  per  acre  on  the 
least  possible  amount  of 
stalk.  Some  types  of 
cotton  have  the  fruit 
branches  set  close  to- 
gether and  the  bolls 
close  to  each  other  on 
the  branch.  Fig.  103 
shows  cotton  of  this 
kind  and  represents  a 
very  desirable  type. 
There  are  four  primary 
limbs  set  close  to  the 
ground  and  the  inter- 
nodes  are  short.  It  has  been  determined  ^  that  cotton 
of  this  type  will  blossom  earlier  than  cotton  in  which  the 
internodes  are  long.  Early  blossoming,  with  consequent 
eary  fruiting,  is  especially  desirable  in  localities  where  the 
boll  weevil  attacks  the  cotton.  A  late-maturing  undesir- 
able type  is  shown  in  Fig.  104.  The  size  of  the  bolls  is  an 
important  factor  in  determining  the  yield  of  cotton.     In 

^Texas  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  74. 


Fig.  104.  A  late,  slow  fruiting,  unproduc- 
tive type  of  cotton  plant,  with  high  fruit 
limbs  and  long  joints.  Leaves  removed. 
(After  Bennett.) 


204 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


some  instances,  it  has  been  stated  that  large  bolls  are 
always  associated  with  late  maturity,  but  recent  experi- 
ments^ indicate  that  large  bolls  can  be  produced  on  the 
early  maturing,  short-jointed  type,  and  greatly  increase 
the  total  yield,  provided  a  maximum  number  of  bolls 
is  maintained. 

The   percentage  of  Unt  to  seed  is  of  importance.    At 
present  the  average  is  about  two  pounds  of  seed  to  one 


Fig.  105.  (1)  Big  Boll.  (2)  Small  Boll.  (3) 
and  (4)  Short  fruit  limbs.  (5)  Cluster  type 
fruit  limb.     (After  Bennett.) 


of  lint,  or  33 J  per  cent  of  the  total  weight;  but  samples 
are  often  found  in  which  the  amount  of  lint  will  run  as 
high  as  40  per  cent. 

In  the  selecting  of  cotton  for  breeding  and  improve- 
ment, careful  attention  should  be  given  to  securing  plants 
of  early  fruiting  type  and  medium  size,  not  over  five 
feet  high,   with   many  bolls  of  large  size  and  high  per- 

iTexas  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  7& 


COTTON  205 

centage  of  lint.  With  the  seed  carefully  selected  from 
individual  plants,  the  breeding  operations  may  be  con- 
ducted in  the  same  manner  as  described  for  corn  (see 
p^ge  25). 

Professor  Bennett,  of  the  Texas  Experiment  Station, 
recommends  the  following  types  of  cotton: 

For  Early  Fruiting. — The  first  fruit-limbs  must  be 
low — not  higher  than  the  fifth  joint  above  the  seed-leaf 
joint.  Primary  or  wood  limbs  must  be  low — the  first  not 
above  the  fifth  joint,  and  not  exceeding  four  in  number. 

For  Rapid  Fruiting. — The  joints  on  the  main  stem, 
fruit  limbs  and  primary  limbs  must  be  short — not  to 
exceed  two  or  three  inches  is  preferable.  Fruit  limbs  should 
grow  in  succession  at  each  joint  of  the  main  stem  and  pri- 
mary limbs,  and  should  be  continuous  in  growth  for  con- 
tinuous fruiting. 

For  Product' veness. — The  bolls  should  not  be  less 
than  one  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter.  The  ratio  of 
lint  to  seed  cotton  should  not  be  less  than  33J  per  cent. 
The  rate  of  growth  is  very  important;  and,  therefore, 
the  larger  the  plant  of  the  type,  the  greater  is  its  inherent 
rate  of  growth,  its  earliness,  rapidity  of  fruiting  and  yield. 
Early  opening  of  the  bolls  is  not  important  in  escaping 
the  weevil.  In  states  farther  north,  it  is  of  importance 
in  escaping  the  early  frosts.  It  is  not  invariably  a  measure 
of  the  early  setting  of  fruit. 

193.  Relation  of  Climate  to  Cotton.  Cotton  is  a  warm- 
weather  plant  and  needs  a  comparatively  long-growing 
season.  Its  growth  may  be  divided  into  two  periods, — 
the  vegetative  or  growing  period,  and  the  fruiting  period. 
This  does  not  mean  that  the  plant  stops  growing  when  it 


206  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

begins  to  fruit,  but  that  it  should  make  its  most  rapid 
growth  during  the  first  period,  and  attain  nearly  maxi- 
mum size.  Sea-island  cotton  requires  90  to  100  days 
for  the  growing  period,  and  80  to  90  days  for  the 
fruiting  period.  The  early-maturing  type  represented  in 
Fig.  103  should  require  only  about  70  days  for  the  first 
period.  It  is  desirable  that  the  vegetative  period  shall 
be  short  and  the  fruiting  period  as  long  as  possible. 

Warm,  moist  weather,  with  warm  nights  and  gradu- 
ally increasing  heat,  are  desirable  during  the  period  of 
growth.  For  the  fruiting  period,  dry  weather  with  oc- 
casional showers  is  desirable.  An  excess  of  moisture  in 
the  soil  at  this  time  will  cause  the  stalk  to  grow  too  large 
and  retard  the  proper  development  of  the  bolls. 

194.  Cotton  Soils.  Cotton  develops  best  on  a  clay  or 
sandy  loam  soil,  with  a  clay  subsoil  at  a  depth  of  about 
two  feet.  On  bottom  land,  enriched  by  occasional  over- 
flows, there  is  a  tendency  for  the  stalks  to  grow  very 
large,  and  they  sometimes  become  so  tough  that  they  must 
be  chopped  down  with  axes  before  the  land  can  be  cleared 
and  plowed  for  the  succeeding  crop. 

Good  cotton  land  should  be  well  drained,  but  sufficiently 
retentive  of  moisture  to  insure  the  crop  against  injury 
by  drought.  To  increase  the  water-holding  capacity  of 
the  soil,  there  should  be  a  higher  percentage  of  organic 
matter  than  is  usually  found  in  cotton  fields.  This  can 
be  secured  by  planting  peanuts  or  some  bush  variety  of 
cowpeas  between  the  cotton  rows,  and  plowing  them  under 
with  the  cotton  stalks  after  the  cotton  has  been  picked. 
This  is  not  yet  a  common  practice.  Bur  clover  grows  well 
in  the  southern  states  in  the  winter,  and  can  be  used  as  a 


COTTON  207 

cover  crop  following  the  cotton,  to  be  plowed  under  the 
following  spring. 

195.  Preparation  of  the  Soil.  Early  fall  plowing  is  always 
advisable,  especially  when  cotton  is  to  follow  cotton. 
There  are  three  marked  advantages  in  plowing  under 
stalks  and  weeds  in  the  fall:  (1)  Organic  matter  is  added 
to  the  soil ;  (2)  boll-weevil  and  boll-worm,  and  other  in- 
sects are  destroyed  ;  (3)  the  seeds  are  destroyed  which 
produce  the  volunteer  cotton  on  which  the  boll-weevil 
feeds  after  the  regular  crop  has  fully  matured. 

Where  the  growth  of  stalk  is  very  large,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  clear  the  stalks  from  the  land  and  burn  them, 
but  on  soils  of  average  productivity  the  stalks  should  be 
cut  and  turned  under. 

It  is  common  practice  on  many  cotton  farms  to  plant 
cotton  on  land  that  grew  cotton  the  previous  season. 
The  soil  is  prepared  for  planting  by  using  a  small,  one- 


FiG.     106. 

A  corn  and  cotton  stalk  cutter.    To         '  Fig.  107.   A  "middle-buster"  for 
cut  the  stalks  before  plowing  cotton  fields 

horse  turning  plow,  going  twice  between  each  two  rows, 
throwing  the  dirt  to  the  center,  and  leaving  the  cotton 
rows  which  are  then  broken  up  by  a  plow  called  a  mid- 
dle-burster, y/hich  throws  the  dirt  to  each  side.  This 
forms  the  land  into  narrow  beds,  or  ridges,  with  furrows 


208  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

between,  and  on  these  ridges  the  seed  is  planted.  The 
chief  objection  to  this  plan  is  the  expense  of  the  labor. 
In  modern  systems  of  farming,  the  amount  of  horse  power 
utiUzed  per  man  should  be  increased  as  much  as 
possible. 

196.  Fertilizers  for  Cotton.  When  the  seed  of  the  cotton 
plant  is  used  on  the  farm  for  feed,  and  only  the  lint  is 
sold,  very  little  plant-food  is  removed  from  the  farm. 
If  manure  could  be  saved  and  returned  to  the  land,  there 
would  be  little  occasion  to  use  commercial  fertiUzers. 
On  farms  in  the  South,  however,  the  accumulation  of 
manure  is  much  more  difficult  than  in  the  northern  states, 
because  of  the  fact  that  the  cattle  and  work  stock  are 
not  often  kept  in  barns,  but  are  out  in  the  open  pastures. 

Experiments  at  various  stations  indicate  that  the 
nitrogen  content  of  the  soil  can  be  maintained  by  the 
growing  of  cowpeas,  peanuts,  and  clover  or  alfalfa,  in 
rotation  with  corn  and  cotton.  At  the  Texas  station,  no 
benefit  was  secured  by  the  use  of  potash,  but  an  application 
of  200  pounds  per  acre  of  acid  phosphate,  about  two  weeks 
before  the  seed  was  planted,  produced  earUer  blossoms 
and  a  greater  yield.  At  the  Georgia  station,  it  was  found 
that  when  organic  ni,trogen,  cottonseed  meal  or  tankage 
was  used,  it  should  be  applied  about  two  weeks  before 
the  seed  was  planted;  and  the  same  recommendation 
was  made  with  reference  to  applications  of  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid.  It  was  also  recommended  that  16  to  20 
pounds  per  acre  of  nitrate  of  soda  should  be  applied  with 
the  seed. 

The  following  suggestions  may  be  helpful  in  applying 
fertilizer  to  cotton  on  average  soil : 


COTTON  209 

(1)  If  the  cotton  is  grown  after  cotton  without  rota- 
tion with  a  legume,  more  nitrogen  will  be  needed. 

(2)  Potash  and  phosphoric  acid  will  be  needed  unless 
liberal  applications  of  bai:nyard  manure  are  applied. 

(3)  Potash  will  make  the  plant  hardier  and  more  able 
to  withstand  the  attacks  of  fungous  diseases. 

(4)  Phosphoric  acid  increases  the  yield  of  lint  and  tends 
to  produce  early  fruiting. 

(5)  When  plants  are  small  and  dwarfish  and  not  well 
fruited,  apply  complete  fertiUzer. 

(6)  When  the  plants  are  of  average  size,  but  not  well 
fruited,   apply  acid  phosphate. 

(7)  If  the  leaves  are  dropping  off  before  the  fruit  is 
well  formed,   apply   potash.- 

(8)  Mix  the  fertilizer  with  the  soil  underneath  the 
row  or  bed.  Broadcasting  fertilizer  for  cotton  tends  to 
produce  late  maturity. 

197.  Planting  and  Cultivating.  The  method  of  prepar- 
ing the  soil  for  planting  depends  largely  on  its  texture 
and  the  drainage  conditions.  On  wet  lands,  poorly  drained, 
the  best  practice  is  to  plant  the  seed  on  beds  thrown  up 
about  four  feet  apart.  On  soil  that  is  well  drained  and 
in  the  drier  sections,  level  preparation  of  the  ground  is 
advisable.  The  soil  should  be  well  compacted,  with  just 
sufficient  loose  dirt  on  the  surface  to  cover  the  seed.  The 
results  of  various  trials  at  different  experiment  stations 
indicate  that  four  feet  is  the  best  average  distance  be- 
tween the  rows,  and  12  to  18  inches  is  the  proper  distance 
between  the  plants  in  the  row.  On  rich  bottom-land  soil 
this  may  result  in  crowding  the  plants  so  that  the  lower 
branches  are  too  much  shaded.    If  this  is  true,  it  would  be 


210  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

better  to  select  a  smaller-growing  type  of  cotton.  Early 
planting  is  strongly  advised  in  all  localities,  and  the 
quantity  of  seed  should  be  sufficiently  large  to  insure 
absolute  certainty  of  a  stand.  For  early  planting,  not 
less  than  30  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  should  be  used. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  well  established  in  the  soil 
and  all  danger  of  frost  is  passed,  the  excess  number  of 
plants  should  be  removed  by  chopping  out  the  inter- 
vening spaces  with  a  hoe,  leaving  vigorous  plants  about 
12  to  16  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Following  the  chopping, 
a  cultivator  should  be  run  close  to  the  row,  so  as  to  throw 
some  dirt  toward  the  plants.  The  cultivation  of  the  cot- 
ton should  be  shallow  and  frequent,  and  continued  until 
the  plants  begin  to  mature  bolls,  and  later,  if  necessary, 
to  prevent  a  crust  forming.  If  the  preparation  of  the  land 
was  thorough  and  the  soil  has  been  well  tilled  up  to  this 
time,  the  crop  can  be  laid  by  with  an  assurance  that  there 
is  a  sufficient  quantity  of  moisture  and  available  plant- 
food  to  mature  the  bolls. 

198.  Harvesting.  The  cotton  crop  is  harvested  by  hand. 
Various  attempts  have  been  made,  from  time  to  time, 
to  build  a  mechanical  cotton-picker,  and  some  very  credit- 
able machines  have  been  produced,  but  they  have  not 
come  into  general  use.  The  problem  is  a  difficult  one  be- 
cause of  the  leaves  and  trash  that  are  more  or  less 
mixed  with  the  cotton  by  the  machine.  Cotton-picking 
is  the  negro's  hoUday  vacation,  and  where  there  is  a 
large  percentage  of  colored  people,  there  is  usually  little 
difficulty  in  getting  sufficient  labor  to  harvest  the  crop. 
They  pass  rapidly  through  the  fields,  deftly  picking  the 
locks  from  the  open  bolls,   and  placing  them  in  a  long 


COTTON  211 

sack  which  they  drag  behind  them.  The  cotton  is  usually 
picked  by  the  hundred  pounds.  An  average  picker  can 
easily  pick  200  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  day. 

199.  Marketing.  The  seed  cotton  is  carried  from  the 
field  to  the  cotton-gin,  where  the  lint  is  separated  from 
the  seed.  The  seed  cotton  is  unloaded  from  the  wagon 
by  means  of  a  suction  tube  about  eight  inches  in  diameter, 
the  end  of  which  is  placed  close  to  the  cotton.  Through 
this  tube  the  cotton  is  carried  to  the  **gin  stand,"  where 
it  passes  over  small,  fine-toothed,  circular  saws,  which 
rotate  at  a  very  high  rate  of  speed.  These  saws  remove 
the  lint  from  the  seed,  which  is  returned  by  mechanical 
conveyors  to  the  wagon,  or  carried  into  the  house  used 
for  the  storage  of  seed.  From  the  ^^gin,"  the  cotton  comes 
out  in  great  sheets  of  snowy  whiteness,  and  is  formed  by 
a  powerful  hydraulic  press  into  a  very  compact  bale 
weighing  about  500  pounds.  This  bale  is  covered  with  a 
coarse,  heavy  bagging,  and  is  held  together  by  strong 
iron  bands.  These  bales  are  so  compact  that  they  are  often 
left  out  in  the  rain  for  months  without  serious  injury. 

200.  Grades  of  Cotton.  Cotton  is  graded  and  sold  ac- 
cording to  the  quality  of  lint,  as  shown  by  a  sample  taken 
from  the  bale.  The  variety  of  cotton  has  nothing  to  do 
with  its  market  classification,  but  it  depends  much  more 
on  the  development  of  the  plant.  The  accepted  standards 
for  the  grading  of  cotton  are,  from  the  best  to  the  poorest: 
(1)  Fair;  (2)  middUngfair;  (3)  good  middling;  (4)  middling; 
(5)  low  middling;  (6)  good  ordinary;  (7)  ordinary. 
Each  of  these  grades  is  divided  into  subdivisions  which 
merge  one  grade  into  the  other. 

Middling  is  the  accepted  standard  for  all  short-staple 


212  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

upland  cotton  of  good  quality,  and  all  prices  are  quoted 
on  this  basis.  Cotton  offered  for  sale  is  worth  more  or  less 
per  pound  according  to  the  grade  as  compared  with  mid- 
dling. 

201.  Cotton  Seed.  Cotton  seed,  which  was  formerly 
considered  worthless,  is  now  held  in  high  esteem  as  a  food 
for  live  stock,  and  for  manufacturing  purposes.  It  is  fed 
to  cattle  and  sheep  extensively,  and,  in  a  limited  way, 
to  horses  and  mules.  It  is  not  used  to  any  extent  as  hog- 
feed,  because  of  the  fact  that  when  fed  in  liberal  quan- 
tities it  is  liable  to  kill  hogs. 

The  oil  mills  use  large  quantities  of  seed  in  the  produc- 
tion of  cotton  oil  and  cottonseed  cake.  The  former,  in 
the  form  of  cottolene,  is  extensively  used  as  a  substitute 
for  lard.    A  ton  of  cotton  seed  will  produce  approximately: 

40  pounds  of  linter,  or  short  fiber,  which  has  adhered  to 

the  seed  after  ginning. 
800  pounds  of  hulls. 

800  pounds  of  cake,  which  is  ground  into  meaj. 
280  pounds  of  crude  oil. 
89  pounds  of  trash  and  dirt. 

The  crude  oil  obtained  from  the  cotton  seed  is  refined 
and  sold  in  different  grades.  The  better  quahties  are  used 
as  substitutes  for  lard  and  olive  oil,  and  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  oleomargarine.  Cotton  oil  has  many  valuable 
qualities.  It  has  been  used  to  some  extent  as  an  adul- 
terant, and  on  this  account  has  acquired  a  bad  repu- 
tation; but  it  has  merits  of  its  own  that  justify  its  use  as 
an  article  of  human  food,  to  be  sold  under  its  true  name. 

Cottonseed  meal,  hulls  and  linters  are  the  by-products 
resulting  from  the  extraction  of  the  oil  from  the  seed. 


COTTON  213 

The  cotton  seed,  after  the  lint  has  been  removed,  is  crushed, 
and  the  ''meat"  is  separated  from  the  hull.  This  meat 
is  cooked  at  high  temperature  by  steam,  and  later  sub- 
jected to  great  pressure,  which  expresses  the  oil  and  leaves 
the  residue  in  the  form  of  a  cake,  which  is  ground  into 
meal. 

A  different  method  of  extracting  the  oil  from  the  seed 
is  used  by  a  very  few  mills.  In  these  the  hulls  are  not 
separated  from  the  meat,  and  the  oil  is  expressed  without 
cooking.  The  cake  that  is  left  by  this  process  has  more 
oil  than  that  which  is  cooked. 

Cottonseed  meal  mixed  with  hulls  makes  a  very  de- 
sirable feed  for  dairy  cows  and  fattening  steers.  One  ton 
of  cottonseed  meal  contains  three  times  the  amount  of 
digestible  protein  contained  in  one  ton  of  wheat  bran. 
This  does  not  mean,  however,  that  it  is  worth  three 
times  as  much  as  wheat  bran  for  feeding  purposes,  for  what 
it  gains  in  percentage  of  protein  it  must  lose  in  the  per- 
centage of  carbohydrates  or  other  material.  In  feeding  the 
meal  to  dairy  cows,  it  is  best  to  limit  the  amount  fed  to 
about  two  to  three  pounds  to  each  cow  per  day.  If  addi- 
tional grain  is  desired,  add  wheat  bran,  rice  poUsh,  or  corn 
chops  to  the  ration. 

The  nitrogen  contained  in  the  cottonseed  meal  makes 
it  a  valuable  fertilizer,  and  it  is  much  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, although  it  would  be  a  more  profitable  practice  to 
feed  the  meal  to  dairy  cows  and  carefully  save  the  manure 
for  application  to  the  soil.  If  this  is  done,  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  fertilizing  value  of  the  meal  will  still  be 
retained  in  the  manure.  It  is  very  desirable  that  more  live- 
stock be  kept  in  the  South. 


214  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

The  fertilizing  constituents  of  cottonseed  meal  and 
its  value  per  ton  as  a  fertilizer  are  as  follows: 

Lbs.  in 

one  ton  Value 

Nitrogen 135.8  $27  16 

Phosphoric  acid 57  6  2  88 

Potash 17.4  87 

$30  91 

202.  Fungous   Diseases   and   Insects   Affecting   Cotton. 

Cotton  is,  for  the  most  part,  a  robust  plant;  yet,  where 
it  is  continuously  cultivated  on  the  same  soil  it  becomes 
subject  to  certain  parasitic  and  fungous  diseases.  These 
diseases,  when  present  in  a  field,  develop  very  rapidly, 
and  the  curative  measures  resorted  to  are  not  very  effec- 
tive. When  cotton  is  grown  in  rotation  with  corn  and 
some  legume,  which  occupy  the  soil  for  one  or  two  seasons 
and  build  up  the  organic  matter  and  nitrogen  content 
of  the  soil,  very  little  trouble  is  experienced  with  para- 
sitic or  fungous  diseases. 

The  two  insects  most  troublesome  in  the  cotton  fields 
are  the  Mexican  boll-weevil  and  the  cotton-boll  worm. 
Both  of  these  can  be  retarded  to  some  extent  by  early 
planting,  and  such  methods  of  culture  as  will  hasten  the 
crop  to  maturity.     (See  Figs.  135  and  136.) 

The  boll-weevil,  as  its  name  indicates,  originally  came 
from  Mexico,  and  in  ten  years'  time  it  has  spread  over 
all  of  central  and  eastern  Texas  and  western  Louisiana, 
advancing  at  the  rate  of  about  50  miles  per  year.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  annual  loss  to  the  farmers  of  Texas 
occasioned  by  the  boll-weevil  is  over  $25,000,000.  Far- 
mers' Bulletin  No.  189  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  states  that  ''there  is  not  even  a  remote 


COTTON  215 

possibility  that  the  boll-weevil  will  ever  be  exterminated," 
and  also  "that  it  will  eventually  be  distributed  over  all 
the  cotton-belt." 

The  weevil  appears  in  early  summer,  and  first  attacks 
the  buds,  or  squares,  which  are  blasted  by  the  attack  and 
soon  drop  off.  If  any  of  the  blossoms  escape  the  attack 
of  the  little  insect,  the  bolls  develop  unmolested  during 
the  early  season;  for,  as  long  as  the  insects  are  not  very 
numerous  and  the  buds  continue  to  form,  it  attacks  them 
only.  It  is  thus  readily  seen  that  the  hope  of  the  farmer, 
in  infested  districts,  must  rest  in  an  endeavor  to  produce 
a  crop  early  enough  in  the  season  to  form  a  large  per- 
centage of  bolls  before  the  weevil  appears.  It  is  also  of 
much  importance  that  the  fields  be  cleared  in  the  fall 
and  plowed.  If  cattle  can  be  turned  into  the  cotton  field 
after  the  picking  is  finished,  they  will  undoubtedly  destroy 
a  great  many  weevils,  but  the  fall  plowing  of  the  land  should 
not  be  neglected.  Frost  destroys  the  weevil  to  some  ex- 
tent, and  its  winter  hibernating  places  should  be  broken 
up.  It  is  also  advisable  to  burn  the  grass  around  the 
borders  of  the  fields,  and  to  destroy  all  "volunteer  cotton" 
on  which  the  weevil  might  live. 

The  boll- worm  stands  second  in  importance  as  a  menace 
to  the  cotton  crop,  but  experience  teaches  that  this  insect 
is  also  beaten  by  an  early  crop.  The  boll-worm  feeds  on 
many  other  plants  besides  cotton,  and  it  does  not  usually 
appear  in  the  cotton  fields  until  corn  and  other  crops 
have  so  far  matured  as  to  be  no  longer  attractive  to  it. 
If  the  attack  of  the  boll-worm  should  be  especially  severe, 
the  dusting  of  the  plants  with  Paris  green  may  be  resorted 
to.    Two  applications  at  intervals  of  ten  days  will  be  re- 


216  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

quired.  In  considering  methods  of  control  for  any  of 
these  pests,  it  should  be  remembered,  that  prevention  is 
much  better  than  cure,  and  that  those  conditions  of 
soil  culture  which  tend  to  destroy  the  insect  pests  will 
at  the  same  time  produce  a  strong,  vigorous,  early  crop, 
which  will  be  well  out  of  danger  before  the  insects  ap- 
pear in  very  great  numbers.  These  conditions  may  be 
summarized: 

(1)  Plow  the  land  deep  in  the  fall. 

(2)  Select  seed  from  early-fruiting  plants. 

(3)  Use  fertilizers  that  'tend  to  produce  vigorous 
plants  and  early  fruit. 

(4)  Plant  early  and  use  plenty  of  seed  to  insure  a 
''stand"  (not  less  than  one  bushel  per  acre). 

(5)  Cultivate  the  land  shallow  and  very  thoroughly 
during  the  early  growth  of  the  plant. 

THE   WOOD   CROP 

203.  Forests  of  the  United  States.  'The  forests  of  the 
United  States  cover  an  area  of  about  699,500,000  acres, 
or  more  than  35  per  cent  of  the  surface  of  the  country. 
Before  so  large  a  part  of  them  were  destroyed,  they  were, 
perhaps,  the  richest  on  the  earth,  and  with  proper  care 
they  are  capable  of  being  so  again.  Their  power  of  repro- 
duction is  exceedingly  good. 

"In  the  northeastern  states,  and  as  far  west  as  Minne- 
sota, once  stretched  the  great  white  pine  forest  from  which, 
since  settlement  began,  the  greater  part  of  our  lumber 
has  come.  South  of  it,  in  a  broad  belt  along  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Gulf  coasts,  lies  the  southern  pine  forest,  whose 


Fig.  108.     Destructive  lumbering.    The  slash  enabled  fire  to 
complete  the  ruin 


Fw.  109.    Conservative  lumbering.    Young  growth  saved,  brush  piled 
to  prevent  fire 


•  •  ^  «  •. 


,»_>J«*   w 


THE  WOOD   CROP  217 

most  important  tree,  both  for  lumber  and  naval  stores, 
is  the  southern  yellow  pine.  In  the  Mississippi  valley 
lies  the  interior  hardwood  forest  of  oaks,  hickories,  ashes, 
gums,  and  other  hardwood  trees.  It  is  bordered  on  the 
west  by  the  plains,  which  cover  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
continental  divide  until  they  meet  the  evergreen  Rocky 
mountain  forest  which  clothes  the  slopes  of  this  great 
range  from  the  Canadian  line  to  Mexico.  Separated  from 
the  Rocky  mountain  forest  by  the  interior  deserts,  the 
Pacific  coast  forest  covers  the  flanks  of  the  Sierras,  the 
Cascades,  and  the  coast  ranges.  Its  largest  trees  are  the 
giant  sequoia  and  the  great  coast  redwood,  and  its  most 
important  timber  is  the  fir. 

204.  The  Settler  and  the  Forest.  "When  the  early  set- 
tlers from  the  Old  World  landed  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
of  North  America  they  brought  with  them  traditions 
of  respect  for  the  forest  created  by  generations  of  forest 
protection  at  home.  The  country  to  which  they  came 
was  covered,  for  the  most  part,  with  dense  forests.  There 
was  so  little  open  land  that  ground  had  to  be  cleared  for 
the  plow.  It  is  true  that  the  forest  gave  the  pioneers 
shelter  and  fuel,  and  game  for  food,  but  it  was  often  filled 
with  hostile  Indians,  it  hemmed  them  in  on  every  side, 
and  immense  labor  was  required  to  win  from  it  the  soil 
in  which  to  raise  their  necessary  crops.  Naturally,  it 
seemed  to  them  an  enemy  rather  than  a  friend.  Their 
respect  for  it  dwindled  and  disappeared,  and  its  place 
was  taken  by  hate  and  fear. 

"The  feeling  of  hostiUty  to  the  forest  which  grew  up 
among  the  early  settlers  continued  and  increased  among 
their  descendants  long  after  all  reason  for  it  had  disap- 


218  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

peared.    But  even  in  the  early  days  far-sighted  men  began 
to  consider  the  safety  of  the  forest."^ 

205.  The  Relation  of  Forestry  to  the  Nation.  'The 
great  industries  of  agriculture,  transportation,  mining, 
grazing,  and,  of  course,  lumbering,  are  each  one  of  them 
vitally  and  immediately  dependent  upon  wood,  water, 
or  grass  from  the  forests.  The  manufacturing  industries 
whether  or  not  wood  enters  directly  into  their  finished 
product,  are  scarcely,  if  at  all,  less  dependent  upon  the 
forest  than  those  whose  connection  with  it  is  obvious  and 
direct.  Wood  is  an  indispensable  part  of  the  material 
structure  upon  '^i^hich  civilization  rests;  and  it  is  to  be 
remembered  always  that  the  immense  increase  of  the  use 
of  iron  and  substitutes  for  wood  in  many  structures, 
while  it  has  meant  a  relative  decrease  in  the  amount  of 
wood  used,  has  been  accompanied  by  an  absolute  increase 
in  the  amount  of  wood  used.  More  wood  is  used  than  ever 
before  in  our  history.  Thus,  the  consumption  of  wood 
in  ship-building  is  far  larger  than  it  was  before  the  dis- 
covery of  the  art  of  building  iron  ships,  because  vastly 
more  ships  are  built.  Larger  supphes  of  building  lumber 
are  required,  directly  or  indirectly,  for  use  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  brick  and  steel  and  stone  structures  of  great 
modern  cities  than  were  consumed  by  the  comparatively 
few  and  comparatively  small  wooden  buildings  in  the 
earlier  stages  of  these  same  cities.  It  is  as  sure  as  anything 
can  be  that  we  will  see  in  the  future  a  steadily  increasing 
demand  for  wood  in  our  manufacturing  industries. 

206.  Forest  Policy  for  the  Future.  ''When  wood,  dead 
or  alive,  is  demanded  in  so  many  ways,  and  when  this 

iGifford  Pinchot,  Bulletin  No.  24,  Bureau  Forestry,  Part  2,  pp.  81-83 


THE   WOOD   CROP  219 

demand  will  undoubtedly  increase,  it  is  a  fair  question, 
then,  whether  the  vast  demands  of  the  future  upon  our 
forests  are  likely  to  be  met.  You  are  mighty  poor  Ameri- 
cans if  your  care  for  the  well-being  of  this  country  is  limited 
to  hoping  that  that  well-being  will  last  out  your  own  genera- 
tion. No  man  here  or  elsewhere  is  entitled  to  call  himself 
a  decent  citizen  if  he  does  not  try  to  do  his  part  toward 
seeing  that  our  national  policies  are  shaped  for  the  advan- 
tage of  our  children  and  our  children's  children.  Our 
country,  we  have  faith  to  believe,  is  only  at  the  beginning 
of  its  growth.  Unless  the  forests  of  the  United  States  can 
be  made  ready  to  meet  the  vast  demands  which  this 
growth  will  inevitably  bring,  commercial  disaster,  that 
means  disaster  to  the  whole  country,  is  inevitable.  If 
the  present  rate  of  forest  destruction  is  allowed  to  con- 
tinue, with  nothing  to  offset  it,  a  timber  famine  in  the 
future  is  inevitable.  Fire,  wasteful  and  destructive  forms 
of  lumbering,  and  the  legitimate  use,  taken  together,  are 
destroying  our  forest  resources  far  more  rapidly  than  they 
are  being  replaced.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine  what  such  a 
timber  famine  would  mean  to  our  resources.  And  the 
period  of  recovery  from  the  injuries  which  a  timber  famine 
would  entail  would  be  measured  by  the  slow  growth  of 
the  trees  themselves.  Remember  that  you  can  prevent 
such  a  timber  famine  occurring,  by  wise  action  taken  in 
time;  but,  once  the  famine  occurs,  there  is  no  possible 
way  of  hurrying  the  growth  of  the  trees  necessary  to  re- 
lieve it."^ 

207.  National  Forests.    On  June  30,  1908,  the  United 
States  government  owned   165   national  forests   with   an 

^Theodore  Roosevelt,  President  of  the  United  States,  before  the  Amer- 
ican Forest  Congress.    Circular  No.  35   Bureau  of  Forestry,  pp.  6,  7. 


220  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

area  of  167,976,886  acres.  The  establishment  of  these 
forest  reserves  is  chiefly  due  to  President  Cleveland  and 
President  Roosevelt.  The  object  is  not  to  prevent  trees 
from  being  cut.  Forestry  cuts  trees  and  grows  trees, 
just  as  farming  grows  crops  and  harvests  them.  The 
government  reserves  will  furnish  much  more  lumber  than 
would  be  produced  if  the  reserves  were  lumbered  over  in 
the  usual  manner,  which  leaves  the  forest  practically 
ruined  and  allows  fires  to  complete  the  destruction. 

The  chief  object  of  the  reserves  is  to  protect  the  drain- 
age basins  of  the  streams  that  furnish  water  for  irriga- 
tion. This  also  prevents  destructive  floods  and  furnishes 
a  constant  supply  of  water  for  water  power.  It  also  pre- 
vents the  destruction  of  the  soil  that  occurs  when  moun- 
tain sides  are  deforested.  In  such  a  case,  it  often  takes 
but  a  few  years  to  wash  away  the  soil  that  it  has  required 
centuries  to  form.  The  reserves  also  maintain  a  constant 
supply  of  wood  and  timber.  A  number  of  states  also  own 
forest  lands.  Nearly  every  civilized  government  owns 
forests. 

But  the  government  reserves  in  the  United  States 
cannot  go  far  toward  furnishing  our  future  lumber  supply. 
The  great  bulk  of  our  forest  lands  belong  to  individuals. 
Most  of  the  lumber  supply  must  be  furnished  by  private 
citizens. 

208.  Forests  and  Climate.  Forests  do  not  have  a  very 
great  influence  on  the  heat  of  the  surrounding  region. 
They  modify  the  wind  for  short  distances.  Contrary  to 
popular  opinion,  they  do  not  have  any  appreciable  effect 
on  rainfall.  Their  great  influence  is  in  holding  back  the 
waters  that  fall  and  so  regulating  the  flow  of  streams. 


THE   WOOD  CROP  221 

Destruction  of  forests  results  in  floods  and  dry  rivers. 
The  severe  floods  of  the  Ohio  river  of  recent  years  are 
due  to  the  deforested  mountain  lands  that  it  drains.  The 
water  all  .runs  off  rapidly  instead  of  being  held  back. 
The  losses  caused  by  the  floods  direct  and  as  a  loss  of 
water  power  would  pay  for  reforesting  the  mountains. 

Possibly  it  is  the  fact  that  forests  at  the  source  keep 
up  the  summer  flow  of  streams  that  has  led  to  the  errone- 
ous conclusion  that  forests  increase  rainfall.  Or,  perhaps, 
the  error  came  from  the  observation  that  where  forests 
occur  there  is  usually  a  good  rainfall.  The  rain  is  the 
cause  of  the  forest  not  the  result  of  it. 

209.  Conservative  Lumbering.  This  differs  from  ordi- 
nary lumbering  in  that: 

(1)  The  forest  is  treated  as  a  crop  that  must  produce 
successive  and  regular  harvests,  rather  than  as  a  mine 
to  be  exhausted  once  for  all. 

(2)  Small  trees  are  not  cut  when  they  are  needed  to 
renew  the  growth. 

(3)  Attention  is  given  to  keeping  the  stand  neither 
too  thick  nor  too  thin. 

(4)  The  tree  weeds,  broken  and  diseased  trees,  are 
removed  to  make  room  for  good  trees.  In  ordinary  lum- 
bering, the  tree  weeds  are  the  ones  that  are  left  to  reseed 
the  area. 

(5)  Lumbering  is  conducted  in  such  a  way  as  to  injure 
the  young  growth  as  little  as  possible. 

(6)  In  some  cases,  seeds  or  young  trees  are  planted. 
This  is  expensive  and  is  usually  not  necessary  if  a  forest 
is  well  handled. 

(7)  The  forest  is  protected  from  fire. 


222  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

210.  Forest  Trees   Are   Now   a   Profitable   Farm   Crop. 

Neglected  as  they  are,  the  farm  wood-lots  of  many  farms 
in  northeastern  United  States  produce  $2  to  $10  worth 
of  wood  per  year  from  each  acre. 

As  an  example,  a  farm  on  the  hill  lands  of  southern 
New  York  consists  of  100  acres,  30  acres  of  which  is  in 
timber.  This  wood-lot  was  cut  in  1907  for  the  third  time 
in  90  years.  Each  time  it  has  been  cut  with  entire  disre- 
gard for  the  future.  The  third  cutting  on  the  30  acres 
sold  for  $2,100,  standing.  In  spite  of  the  present  high 
price  of  lumber,  no  attention  is  given  to  the  future  in  this 
cutting.  Young  trees  that  are  scarcely  worth  cutting, 
but  that  would  be  valuable  in  10  to  20  years,  are  cut.  Those 
that  are  too  small  to  cut  are  broken  down.  This  is  the 
almost  universal  practice,  in  spite  of  the  high  profits  that 
come  from  such  a  wood-lot. 

After  '^skinning"  the  wood-lot,  the  entire  farm  of  100 
acres,  with  buildings,  was  sold  for  $1,400.  This  farm 
would  not  rent  for  $1  an  acre,  as  indicated  by  the  selling 
price.  But,  in  spite  of  the  owners,  it  has  grown  $70  worth 
of  wood  per  acre  since  the  last  cutting  30  years  ago.  If 
the  $1  per  acre  rent  were  placed  at  compound  interest 
it  would  not  amount  to  $70  at  the  end  of  30  years.  In 
other  words,  the  wood  land  pays  better  than  the  farm  land. 
If  the  wood  land  were  given  a  very  little  attention  in 
cutting,  so  as  to  maintain  a  stand  of  the  best  kinds  of 
trees,  the  returns  could  easily  be  doubled.  This  instance 
is  typical  of  large  areas  of  land  in  northeastern  United 
States. 

211.  The  Farm  Wood-Lot.  Many  farms  should  make 
a    business    of    raising    lumber,    railroad    ties,    telephone 


THE   WOOD   CROP 


223 


poles  or  posts  for  sale.  With  the  present  prices,  the  wood- 
lot  is  often  the  most  profitable  part  of  the  farm,  and 
future  prices  promise  to  be  much  higher. 

Nearly  every  farm  should  have  a  wood-lot  to  furnish 
posts,  fuel  and  repairs  for  home  use.  The  majority  of 
farms  have  some  land 
that  is  practically  use- 
less, and  this  land  is 
usually  the  best  for 
trees.  A  little  attention 
to  planting  good  seeds 
or  seedling  trees,  and 
to  cutting  out  the  poor 
kinds,  will  often  trans- 
form these  waste  areas 
into  very  profitable 
woods.  In  the  central 
West,  there  are  many  creeks  and  draws  that  are  too  steep 
or  too  wet  or  wash  too  much  to  be  used  for  farm  purposes, 
but  that  furnish  an  ideal  place  for  trees.  On  farms  where 
none  of  these  conditions  exist,  a  wood-lot  may  often  be 
desirable  near  the  buildings  as  a  windbreak.  If  a  small 
grove  is  planted,  it  will  also  furnish  posts. 

As  a  general  thing,  trees  should  not  be  planted  between 
fields  or  in  fields.  A  row  may  be  grown  along  the  public 
road,  because  they  make  the  place  more  attractive.  It 
is  very  often  desirable  to  change  the  shape  and  size  of 
fields.  Trees  along  fence  lines  prevent  this.  They  also 
sap  the  land  for  many  feet.  This  land  is  usually  worse 
than  lost,  for  it  is  generally  farmed  each  year  and  both 
seed  and  labor  are  lost.   If  left  in  sod,  the  loss  is  less. 


Flo.  110.  White  pines  coming  into  a  pas- 
ture. On  this  land  trees  pay  better  than  the 
poor  pasture. 


224 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


The  writer  lived  for  many  years  on  a  quarter-section^ 
of  land  in  Nebraska  that  had  a  strip  of  trees  all  around  the 
outside  and  had  one  row  of  honey  locust  across  the  farm. 
This  row  of  honey  locust  trees  one-half  mile  long  ruined 
a   strip   about   four   rods   wide   and   injured   considerably 

more.  At  the  end  of  about 
25  years  they  were  cut  for 
posts.  They  required  the  use 
of  four  acres  of  land  for 
most  of  the  time.  If  this 
land  had  been  rented  for 
cash  rent  at  $2.50  an  acre, 
and  the  money  put  at  com- 
pound interest  at  5  per  cent, 
it  would  have  amounted  to 
$487.  Probably  the  posts 
were  not  worth  $200.  On 
the  same  farm  there  were 
groves  of  honey  locust  and 
catalpa,  cottonwood  and 
box  elder.  All  these  were 
very  profitable. 

Not  only  are  the  trees 
along  a  fence  line  a  great 
nuisance,  but  this  is  not  the 
place  to  grow  good  trees.  Such  trees  branch  so  much  as 
to  give  more  brush  than  lumber.  Trees  are  social  beings. 
Many  pubUcations  have  recommended  such  planting.  A 
recent  bulletin^  presents  a  plan  for  a  model  farm  of  160 

^A  section  of  land  is  one  mile  square;  a  quarter-section  is  one-half 
mile  square,  and  contains  160  acres. 
2 Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  228. 


Fig.  111.  An  unsatisfactory  fence- 
post.  The  wire  spoils  the  tree  and  the 
tree  spoils  the  fence. 


THE   WOOD   CROP 


225 


acres  in  Kansas  or  Nebraska  that  has  a  belt  of  trees  around 
the  outside  of  the  farm  and  has  four  rows  and  one  belt 
of  trees  running  across  the  farm.  This  requires  two  and 
one-half  miles  of  trees  running  across  the  fields,  besides 
two  miles  around  the  outside  of  the  farm.  The  rows  across 
the  fields  will  soon  spoil  four  rods  of  land  which  amounts 
to  20  acres.  The  row  around  the  outside  will  soon  spoil 
two  rods  of  land  or  8  acres.  This  would  make  28  acres 
occupied  by  trees.  If  grass  is  grown  next  to  the  trees,  a 
partial  crop  may  be  secured.  These  trees  are  designed  as 
a  windbreak,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  wind  ever 
will  do  as  much  harm  as  the  trees. 

Another  object  of  the  trees  along  the  fields  is  to  act  as 
fence -posts.  But  a  tree  is  a  most  unsatisfactory  post. 
The  trees  grow  completely  around  the  wire.  The  staples 
and  wire  in  the  tree  make  it  unfit  for  sawing.  A  fence 
stapled  to  trees  is  nearly 
always  distorted.  The 
swaying  of  the  trees, 
even  large  trees,  spoils 
a  wire  fence.  The  sap 
from  the  trees  rusts  the 
wire  so  that  it  breaks. 
Even  if  trees  are  along 
a  fence-Une,  it  is  better 
to  set  posts  than  to  use 
the  trees. 

The  wood-lot  should 
very  rarely  be  used  as 
a  pasture.    Stock  destroy  the  leaf  mulch  that  is  so  essen- 
tial  for  the   trees.     They  keep  down  seedling  trees   and 


Fig.  112.  Trees  in  a  pasture.  The  stock 
prevent  a  good  growth  of  timber  and  the  trees 
prevent  a  good  growth  of  grass.  Better  re« 
move  the  stock  or  the  trees. 


226 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


sprouts.  In  general,  it  is  best  not  to  mix  trees  with  crops 
or  with  the  pasture,  except  as  a  few  trees  may  be  desired 
as  shade  for  stock,  or  as  a  windbreak. 

212.  What  Trees  to  Plant.  The  following  are  some  of 
the  desirable  trees  for  posts:  Hardy  catalpa  {Catalpc. 
speciosa)  makes  one  of  the  best  fence-posts  and  grows 
very  rapidly  on  good  land.  It  is  adapted  to  rich,  deep 
soils  south  of  the  41st  parallel.  Black  locust  makes  a 
very  desirable  tree  where  it  is  not  ruined  by  borers. 
Chestnut  is  one  of  the  fastest-growing,   good  post  trees 

for  northeastern  United 

States.  Osage  orange  is 
probably  the  best  post 
material.  It  is  a  slow- 
growing,  drought-resist- 
ant tree,  adapted  to 
regions  south  of  the 
41st  parallel. 

Some  of  the  trees 
adapted  to  the  semi- 
arid  regions  are  bur  oak,  hackberry,  black  locust,  white 
elm,  Russian  mulberry,  osage  orange,  red  cedar,  western 
yellow  pine.  Jack  pine. 

White  pine,  Norway  spruce,  chestnut,  are  among  the 
best  trees  for  planting  in  regions  where  the  white  pine 
once  grew.  For  other  regions  and  the  numerous  other 
trees  and  combinations  of  trees,  see  Bureau  of  Forestry 
Circular  No.   30. 

Several  states  are  growing  young  forest  trees  and  furnish- 
ing them  at  cost  so  as  to  encourage  planting.  Forest  lands 
should  not  be  taxed  in  the  same  manner  as  farm  land. 


Fig,  113.  A  black-locust  grove.  Contrast 
with  the  brush  in  the  background  on  an 
adjoining  farm. 


•  ••» 


ORCHARDS 


227 


ORCHARDS 


213.  Setting  Trees.  In  digging,  the  roots  of  trees  are 
often  broken  and  the  bark  at  the  ends  is  often  torn  off. 
Before  planting,  all  such  roots  should  be  cut  back,  making 
clean  wounds  that  will  heal  readily.  The  more  roots  on  a 
tree  the  better.  At  best,  a  transplanted  tree  retains  only 
a  small  fraction  of  its  roots. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  branches  should  ordinarily  be 
cut  back  or  removed.  The  tree  will  soon  be  larger  if  this 
is  done.  People  usually 
leave  too  much  top  and  too 
little  roots.  It  is  well  to 
remember  that  roots  can 
quickly  grow  a  top,  but 
that  a  top  can  never  take 
the  place  of  roots.  If  too 
much  top  is  left,  the  leaves 
will  dry  the  tree  to  death. 

Trees  should  not  be 
allowed  to  lie  around  in 
the  sun  and  wind  before 
planting.  The  roots  should 
never  be  allowed  to  dry  more  than  is  necessary.  If  the 
roots  are  coated  with  clay,  they  should  be  dipped  in 
water  before  planting. 

Holes  should  be  a  little  larger  than  the  roots  require, 
so  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  coil  the  roots  into  the 
hole.  Trees  should  usually  be  planted  about  two  inches 
deeper  than  they  grew. 

The  most  important  point  in  planting  a  tree  is  firming 


Fig.  115.  Peach  trees  pruned  for 
planting,  a,  unpruned;  h,  slightly  pruned; 
c,  four-inch  stubs  left;  d,  one-inch  stubs; 
e,  pruned  to  a  whip.  Trees  that  were 
pruned  like  d  and  e  when  set,  were  largest 
in  the  fall. 


228  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

the  soil  around  the  roots.  If  the  soil  is  thrown  in  on  top 
of  the  roots  and  then  merely  stepped  on,  there  will  be  a 
hollow  space  under  the  center  of  the  tree.  The  soil  should 
be  packed  under  and  around  the  roots  firmly.  The  upper 
layers  of  roots  should  be  lifted  up,  so  that  they  will  come 
out  in  their  natural  direction,  with  the  soil  below  them 
packed  firmly.  The  last  four  inches  of  soil  should  be  left 
loose  to  absorb  the  rain  and  act  as  a  mulch.  Com- 
monly, trees  are  set  in  exactly  the  opposite  manner — • 
loose  soil  at  the  bottom  and  packed  soil  on  top.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  roots  take  up  their  water  by  osmosis. 
Only  when  they  are  in  most  intimate  contact  with  the 
soil  particles  are  they  able  to  absorb  the  soil  water. 

If  the  region  is  very  dry,  the  soil  should  be  kept  stirred 
or  mulched,  so  that  no  weeds  can  grow. 

214.  Tillage  of  Orchards.  Formerly,  people  thought 
that  orchards  were  able  to  take  care  of  themselves;  but, 
with  the  advent  of  commercial  orcharding,  many  men 
have  come  to  till  the  orchard  as  regularly  as  they  do  the 
other  crops. 

Trees  make  nearly  all  of  their  growth  before  the  sum- 
mer months.  It  is  at  this  season  of  the  year  that  they 
require  the  most  food  and  moisture.  In  New  Jersey,  in 
latitude  40°  30',  the  writer  found  that  nearly  all  the  or- 
chard trees  had  completed  their  twig  growth  by  the  last 
of  June.  In  this  latitude,  tillage  should  begin  as  early  as 
possible,  and  should  stop  by  the  middle  of  July.  A  cover 
crop  may  then  be  sown,  or  the  weeds  may  be  allowed 
to  grow. 

In  tilling  orchards,  great  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
bark  the  trees.    Such  injuries  are  very  serious,  while  the 


ORCHARDS 


229 


little  grass  or  weeds  that  grow  near  the  trunk  are  of  no 
consequence.  Under  any  ordinary  circumstances,  a  few 
feet  of  untilled  land  about  the  base  of  large  trees  does  no 
harm. 

Apple  orchards  will  stand  more  abuse  than  most  kinds 
of  trees,  so  that  they  are  frequently  grown  in  sod.  They 
should  ordinarily  be  tilled.  The  effects  of  tillage  are 
strikingly  shown  in  New  York  state.  Five  hundred  and 
sixty-four  orchards  in  Orleans  county,  containing  4,881 
acres,  were  examined.  The  average  yields  and  incomes 
from  these  orchards  for  five  years  are  shown  below  :^ 

Yield  Per  Acre  of  Tilled  and  Sod  Apple  Orchards,  Five-Year 
Averages  (1900-1904),  Orleans  County,  N.  Y. 


Tilled  ten  years  or  more 

Tilled  five  years  or  more 

Tilled  over  half  of  preceding  five  yeai 
Sod  over  half  of  preceding  five  years 

Sod  five  years  or  more 

Sod  ten  years  or  more 


Average 

Average 

yield 

income 

BU8. 

327 

$182 

274 

138 

225 

113 

222 

107 

204 

108 

176 

87 

The  sod  orchards  that  were  used  as  pastures  for  hogs 
or  sheep  were  better  than  the  average,  but  not  so  good  as 
the  tilled  ones.  There  are,  of  course,  many  conditions 
under  which  tillage  is  not  desirable,  such  as  orchards  on 
steep  hillsides. 

215.  Spraying  Orchards.  Spraying  is  now  a  regular 
practice  of  the  best  fruit-growers,  but  the  majority  of 
orchards  are  still  unsprayed.  The  particular  treatment 
varies  with  the  kind  of  fruit  and  the  region.    Peaches  and 

iNew  York  (Cornell)  Bulletin  No.  229. 


230 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


plums  are  seldom  sprayed   unless  they  are  infected   with 

the  San  Jose  scale.    In  many  regions,  apples  are  commonly 

sprayed    three    times, — once    just    before    the    blossoms 

open,  once  just  as  the  petals  fall,  and  again  10  to  14  days 

later.   The  mixture  used  is  three  to  four  pounds  of  copper 

sulphate,  four  to  six  pounds  of  Ume, 

and  one-half  pound  of  Paris  green  in 

50  gallons  of  water.   (See  page  263.) 

The  effects  of  spraying  apple  trees 

in  Orleans  county,  New  York,  in  1904, 

were  as  follows: 

Unsprayed,  $92  average  income  per  acre. 
Sprayed  once,  $116  average  income  per 

acre. 
Sprayed  twice,  $127  average  income  per 

acre. 
Sprayed  three  times,  $139  average  income 

per  acre. 

216.  Pruning.  Pruning  is  neces- 
sary in  order  to  thin  the  top,  other- 
wise the  competition  among  the 
branches  injures  all  of  them.  The 
main  branches  of  a  fruit  tree  should 
be  so  arranged  as  to  prevent  splitting. 

Trees  that  are  to  stand  many  years 
should  be  so  pruned  as  to  preserve 
sound  trunks.  This  is  of  less  conse- 
quence with  short-Uved  trees  Hke  the 
peach.  Correct  pruning  depends  on 
a  knowledge  of  the  cambium  layer. 
The  hving  and  growing  part  of  a  tree  is  the  cambium 
layer.   This  is  a  tissue  that  Hes  on  the  outside  of  the  wood 


Fig.  116.  A  bad  crotch. 
One  of  the  limbs  should  be 
removed  or  the  tree  will  be 
likely  to  split. 


ORCHARDS 


231 


jb'iG.  117.    Broken  trees,  the  result  of 
crotches 


and  beneath  the  bark.  From  its  outside  it  produces  bark 
and  from  its  inside  it  produces  wood.  It  is  the  layer  of 
young,  tender  cells  that  makes  the  bark  ''slip"  so  readily 
in  early  spring.  A  layer  of  new  cells  grows  on  the  outside 
of  a  tree  every  year. 
The  cells  that  grow  in 
the  fall  are  thicker- 
walled  than  those  that 
grow  in  the  spring.  This 
makes  the  wood  darker 
in  color,  so  that  a  ring 
is  formed  at  the  end  of 
each  season's  growth. 
It  is  these  annual  rings 
that  enable  us  to  tell  the  age  of  a  tree.  The  sap  of  a 
tree  passes  up  through  the  outer  layers  of  wood,  the 
sap  wood,  while  the  elaborated  food  is  distributed 
through  the  cambium  layers. 

The  outer  bark  and  the  inner  wood  of  a  tree  are  dead. 
This  dead  inner  wood  is  protected  by  the  cambium  layer, 
so  that  fungi  and  bacteria  cannot  reach  it.  When  a  limb 
is  cut  off,  or  if  the  bark  is  removed,  the  dead  cells  are 
exposed.  These  cannot  heal  the  wound.  The  cambium 
layer  around  the  edges  must  grow  over  it.  The  safety  of 
the  tree  depends  on  having  it  heal  over  before  it  becomes 
infected  with  molds.  If  the  wound  is  large  and  is  not 
treated,  some  decay  fungus  is  almost  certain  to  become 
established  before  it  heals  over.  The  tree  may  then  heal 
over  and  look  all  right,  but  the  fungi  will  continue  to  grow 
and  will  result  in  a  decayed  or  hollow  trunk.  A  hollow 
tree   usually   continues   to   grow   all   right,    as   the   inner 


232 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  118.  Most  of  the  apple  trees  in  the 
northeastern  states  are  killed  in  this  way. 
(See  Figs.  119  and  120.) 


wood  has  no  use  except  to  support  the  tree;  but,  sooner 
or  later,  it  is  certain  to  be  blown  down  (Fig.  118).  A 
great  majority  of  the  trees  in  forests   and  orchards  die 

because  of  rotten  trunks 
that  give  way  during  a 
wind. 

In  order  to  prevent 
,,  trunks  from  rotting,  care 
should  be  exercised  not  to 
hurt  trees  with  machinery 
or  to  allow  them  to  be  in- 
jured  by  stock.  They 
should  be  pruned  when 
young,  so  as  to  avoid  the 
necessity  of  removing  large  limbs.  If  such  limbs  have  to 
be  removed,  they  should 
be  cut  in  the  manner  that 
will  make  them  heal  fast- 
est. All  large  wounds 
should  be  painted,  so  as 
to  protect  the  wood  until 
it  heals  over. 

Wounds  heal  most  rap- 
idly when  cut  parallel 
with  the  branch,  and  as 
close  to  it  as  possible. 
This  makes  a  much  larger 
wound;  but  it  is  in  line 
with  the  cambium   layer 

and    heals    in  less  time,  as  Fig.  119.     The  decayed    hole   where   a 

J  V  .  .  limb   was   removed.    The  wood-destroying 

proved  by  experiments.  fungi  caused  the  tree  to  break,  Fig.  118. 


ORCHARDS 


233 


Occasionally  a  sound 
tree  starts  to  split,  par- 
ticularly if  crotches  were 
allowed  to  develop  when 
the  tree  was  young. 
Such  a  tree  can  often  be 
saved  by  the  use  of 
bolts.  A  band  put 
around  a  tree  will  girdle 
it,  but  a  bolt  put  through 
it  will  do  no  appreci- 
able damage.  Some- 
times it  is  better  to  put 
a  bolt  through  each 
branch  and  connect 
them  with  a  chain. 


Fig.  120.  Inside  of  the  broken  limb  show- 
ing the  decay  that  entered  through  Fig.  119. 
The  same  tree  as  Fig.  118. 


SHADE   TREES 

217.  The  planting  and 
care  of  shade  trees  can  be 
deducted  from  the  princi- 
ples of  planting  and  prun- 
ing orchard  trees  as  given 
above.  The  indiscriminate 
wounding  of  shade  trees 
is  the  usual  cause  of  death. 
Where  trees  are  likely  to 
be  injured  by  horses,  they 
should  be  protected  by 
wire    guards    around    the 


Fig.  121.  A  long  stub  left  in  pruning. 
The  wound  cannot  heal.  The  tape  shows 
how  far  the  trunk  is  hollow.  The  tree  will 
soon  blow  over. 


234 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


trunks.  Some  person  who  knows  no  better  is  certain  to 
hitch  to  the  tree  sooner  or  later,  if  it  is  handy.  The 
indiscriminate  cutting  of  tree-tops  and  the  use  of  trees 
as  anchors   for  telephone   lines   should  not  require  much 


:i'!f-;/?l 


^^.'-.  .t- 


FiG.  122.     The  wrong  way  to 
make  the  cut 


Fig.  123.     The  right  way  to 
make  the  cut 


comment.      The  telephone  is    more    important  than  the 
trees,  but  we  should  have  both. 


THE   FARM   GARDEN 

218.  The  crop  froni  a  vegetable  garden  of  one-half 
acre  at  the  University  of  Illinois  had  an  average  value 
of  $105  for  five  years.   During  this  time,  the  average  ex- 


THE   FARM   GARDEN 


235 


pense  for  seeds,  insecticides  and  labor  was  $30.^  Every 
farmer  should  have  a  family  orchard  and  a  garden,  not 
only  for  pleasure,  but  for  profit  that  results  from  a  saving 
on  living  expenses. 

The  garden  should  be  large  enough  to  be  plowed  and 
worked  with  a  team.  All  cultivation  should  be  given 
with  horses.  This  will  require  a  Uttle  more  area  for  the 
same  produce,  but  land  is  cheaper  than  hand  labor.  One 
reason  why  farmers'  gardens  are  so  poor  is  that  so  much 
dependence  is  placed  on  hand  labor  which  cannot  be 
given.    A  half-acre  to  an  acre  next  to  the  house  should  be 

set  aside  for  the  garden,  on 
most  farms.  If  it  is  not  all 
needed,  it  may  be  filled  in 
with  pumpkins,  roots  or  corn 
for  the  stock .  On  most  farms, 
the  garden  should  be  fenced 
with  poultry-tight  wire. 

The  grapes,  raspberries, 
blackberries,  gooseberries, 
currants,  winter  onions,  rhu- 
barb, asparagus,  straw- 
berries, and  other  perennials, 
should  be  placed  in  full  rows  at  one  side.  These  rows 
should  be  six  to  eight  feet  apart.  While  they  are  young, 
a  row  of  vegetables  may  be  raised  between  them.  When 
they  are  grown,  the  land  may  be  plowed  between  the 
rows  and  kept  tilled.  Such  plants  as  blackberries  should 
be  confined  to  solid  rows  about  two  feet  wide.  This 
allows  for  regular  horse  cultivation  between  rows.    Tillage 

ilUinois  Bulletin  No.  105 


Fio.   124.      The  right  and    the  wrong 
way  to  brace  a  crotch 


236  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

is  necessary  to  produce  the  best  fruit,  particularly  in  dry 
years. 

If  all  perennials  are  at  one  side,  the  remainder  of  the 
garden  will  be  straight  for  plowing.  The  rows  of  vege- 
tables should  be  at  least  two  and  one-half  feet  apart  to 
allow  for  continued  cultivation  with  a  horse  or  team. 
Cultivation  should  be  so  frequent  that  weeds  will  never 
get  started.   In  this  way,  little  hand  labor  will  be  required. 

The  soil  should  be  generously  manured.  It  is  not  profit- 
able to  raise  so  valuable  a  crop  on  poor  land.  If  any  part 
of  the  farm  is  short  of  manure,  let  it  be  the  cheapest 
crop. 

It  will  pay  to  save  seed  of  most  of  the  plants,  as 
the  seed  will  be  surer  to  grow  and  will  be  cheaper  than 
buying  it. 

The  garden  and  orchard  should  contain  every  kind  of 
fruit  and  vegetable  that  will  grow  in  the  region  and  that 
the  family  likes.  There  should  be  enough  varieties  to  cover 
the  season.  The  season  may  be  prolonged  by  bringing 
vegetables  into  the  cellar.  Full-grown  green  tomatoes 
may  be  kept  for  about  two  months  by  wrapping  them  in 
paper.  The  writer  has  had  them  in  December  in  New 
York.  Watermelons  will  keep  some  time.  Celery  may  be 
transplanted  to  the  cellar  and  kept  watered.  It  will  then 
grow  new  shoots  that  are  of  the  finest  quality.  If  one  be- 
comes interested,  he  will  find  many  ways  of  adding  to  the 
usefulness  and  pleasure  of  the  garden. 

A  small  hotbed,  perhaps  four  by  eight  feet,  will  grow 
several  crops  of  lettuce  and  radishes  and  also  plants  for 
the  garden.  A  hotbed  is  a  simple  affair.  Old  boards  may 
be  used  to  make  a  tight  frame,  which  is  about  24  inches 


QUESTIONS   AND   PROBLEMS  237 

deep  on  the  north  and  18  inches  deep  on  the  south.  This 
is  filled  with  firmly  tramped  horse  manure  that  is  just 
beginning  to  heat.  It  is  covered  with  about  six  inches  of 
good  soil,  and  is  then  ready  for  the  window-sash.  Before 
making  such  a  hotbed,  one  would  do  well  to  buy  the  sash 
and  make  the  bed  to  fit  it. 

QUESTIONS   AND   PROBLEMS 

1.  Make  a  study  of  Appendix  Tables  11,  13  and  14. 

2.  What  are  the  average  crop  yields  in  your  region?  How  do  they 
compare  with  the  averages  for  the  United  States? 

3.  What  are  the  average  yields  on  the  best  farms  of  the  region? 
Why  are  these  higher  than  on  the  average  farm? 

4.  What  crops  in  your  county  are  most  valuable?  Which  ones 
occupy  the  most  area? 

5.  What  is  a  low  barometer  area?  What  relation  has  this  to  storms? 

6.  Can  rain  be  made  by  explosives  or  by  other  means? 

7.  What  use  can  a  farmer  make  of  the  United  States  weather  maps? 

8.  How  long  in  advance  can  weather  conditions  be  foretold? 

9.  Can  plants  or  animals  foretell  the  weather? 

10.  Is  there  a  compensating  cycle  in  the  weather?  Is  there  any 
truth  in  the  statement  "March  comes  in  like  a  lamb  and  goes  out  like 
a  lion;  or,  if  it  comes  in  like  a  lion,  it  goes  out  like  a  lamb?"  Does  a 
pleasant  January  indicate  a  disagreeable  February? 

11.  Does  the  moon  affect  crops? 

12.  Does  the  climate  of  a  region  change  in  a  man's  lifetime?  If 
not,  why  do  so  many  persons  think  that  it  does? 

13.  What  is  the  average  annual  rainfall  in  your  county?  What 
part  of  this  falls  during  the  growing  period? 

14.  What  is  the  average  temperature  of  the  year?  Of  the  growing 
months? 

15.  What  is  the  average  date  of  the  last  killing  spring  frost?  Of  the 
first  killing  fall  frost?   How  many  days  are  there  between  frosts? 

16.  At  what  date  may  each  of  the  leading  crops  be  safely  planted 
in  the  region? 

17.  What  is  the  length  of  a  June  day  in  Louisiana?  In  Illinois? 
In  Manitoba?   Of  what  importance  is  this  to  farmers? 


238  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

18.  Is  yours  an  important  corn-growing  region?  Why? 

19.  What  are  the  best  post  trees  of  the  region?  Are  trees  grown 
for  lumber?    If  so,  which  are  best? 

20.  What  effect  does  girdling  a  tree  have? 
21    What  is  a  knot? 

22.  What  is  quarter-sawn  lumber?  In  what  other  ways  is  lumber 
sawn? 

23.  How  can  the  age  of  a  tree  be  determined? 

24.  Will  mulching  the  soil  or  tilling  it  affect  the  time  of  blossom- 
ing of  a  tree? 

25.  How  many  bushels  of  ear  corn  will  a  wagon  box  2  feet 
deep,  3  feet  wide  and  11  feet  9  inches  long  hold?  How  many  bushels  of 
shelled  corn  will  it  hold?  How  much  will  the  load  weigh  in  each  case? 
(See  Appendix,  Table  18.) 

26.  A  man  has  plowed  a  strip  6^  rods  wide  with  furrows  30  rods 
long.  How  many  acres  has  he  plowed  ?  How  many  turns  has  he 
made  if  the  plow  cuts  14  inches  ? 

27.  How  many  tons  of  hay  will  there  probably  be  in  a  mow  that 
is  15  X  30  feet  and  that  contains  10  feet  of  hay  that  has  settled  all 
winter  ?   (See  Appendix,  Table  18.) 

LABORATORY   EXERCISES 

53.  Score  Card  for  Dent  Corn. 

Materials. — Several  samples  of  corn,  five  or  ten  ears  in  a  sample. 

Use  the  score  card  on  page  278  of  "Cereals  in  America,"  or  the 
following,  deducting  for  imperfections  in  any  of  the  points. 

Points 

Maturity  and  market  condition 20 

Seed  condition   20 

Shape  of  kernels 20 

Uniformity   15 

Weight  of  ear 10 

Color  of  grain  and  cob 5 

Length  of  ear  and  proportion    5 

Butts  and  tips    5 

100 

54.  Depth  to  Plant  Corn. 

Materials. — Corn  and  box  of  soil,  or  a  garden.  - 

Plant  ten  kernels  of  corn  at  each  of  the  following  depths:  one, 
two,  four  and  six  inches.  How  many  days  does  it  take  for  the  corn 
to  come  up  in  each  case?    Which  plants  are  most  vigorous?    After  it 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES 


239 


4  Rods 


has  grown  three  weeks,  take  it  up  and  make  drawings  of  the  roots  in 
each  case.  At  what  depth  have  the  permanent  roots  appeared?  Has 
the  depth  of  planting  influenced  this? 

55.  Visit  to  a  Flour  MiU. 

Visit  a  flour  mill,  or  other  similar  manufacturing  enterprise.   Learn 
as  much  as  possible  of  the  processes,  and  write  a  description  of  them. 

56.  Good  and  Poor  Flour. 

Materias. — High-grade  flour 
and  cheap  flour.  One  teacup- 
ful  of  each  for  five  students. 

Moisten  the  flour  just 
enough  to  make  dough.  Work 
it  between  the  fingers,  and  then 
wash  it  until  the  starch  is 
washed  out.  You  will  then  have 
a  sticky  mass  of  gluten.  Com- 
pare the  color  of  the  gluten  in 
high-  and  low-grade  flour.  How 
many  inches  will  each  stretch 
before  it  breaks?  Why  does  the 
high-grade  flour  make  lighter 
bread?  Why  does  corn  or  rye 
not  make  as  light  bread  as 
wheat? 

57.  To  Determine  the  Influence 

of  Fertilizers  on  the  Yield 
of  Timothy  Hay. 

Materials. — Field  of  tim- 
othy, 20  pounds  nitrate  of 
soda,  7^  pounds  acid  phosphate, 
3|  pounds  muriate  of  potash, 
500  pounds  (about  one-fourth 
load)  of  barnyard  manure,  22 
stakes,  tape-measure.  Arrange- 
ments can  probably  be  made  to 
have  some  student  conduct  the 
experiment  at  home. 

Lay  off  ten  plots,  side  by 
side,  each  one  rod  by  four  rods. 


Check 
No  fertilizer 

5  pounds  nitrate  of  soda 

5    pounds  nitrate  of  soda 
2i  pounds  acid  phosphate 

Check 

5    pounds  nitrate  of  soda 
li  pounds  muriate  cf  potash 

2i  pounds  acid  phosphate 
li  pounds  muriate  of  potash 

Check 

5    pounds  nitrate  of  soda 
2i  pounds  acid  phosphate 
li  pounds  muriate  of  potash 

i-load,  about  500  pounds 
cf  Tianure 

Check 

1 

10 


240 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


Apply  fertilizers  early  in  the  spring,  as  shown  in  the  diagram.  The 
fertilizers  for  each  plot  are  weighed  out  and  mixed  together,  then  sown 
broadcast  by  hand.  These  applications  are  much  higher  in  nitrogen 
than  those  commonly  used  on  other  crops  than  hay.  Make  notes  on 
the  growth  of  hay  throughout  the  season. 

When  the  hay  is  ready  to  cut,  run  a  binder  twine  from  stake  to 
stake  to  keep  the  plots  separate,  mow  each  plot  with  a  scythe.  Loop 
up  the  hay  with  a  rope  and  weigh  with  a  spring  balance.  Fill  out  the 
following  table: 


Plot 


Treatment 


Yield 


Rate  of 

yield 
per  acre 


Apparent 
increase 


Value  of 
increase 


Cost 
of  treat- 
ment 


For  method  of  making  calculations  see  page  149. 
A  similar  experiment  is  outlined  for  corn,  cotton,  or  potatoes  on 
page  152. 

58.  To  Determine  the  Best  Method   of  Growing   Alfalfa  for  Regions 
East  of  the  Missouri  River. 

Materials. — Six-tenths  of  an  acre  of  land,  12  stakes,  6  bushels  of 
lime,  15  pounds  (one-fourth  bushel)  of  alfalfa  seed,  soil  from  an  alfalfa 

field,  or  from  a  place  where 
sweet  clover  grows.  Plots  as 
small  as  one  square  rod  may 
be  used.  In  this  case,  only  one- 
sixteenth  as  much  land  and 
materials  are  needed. 

Unless  the  land  selected  is 
very  rich,  manure  should  be 
applied  to  all  the  plots  at  the 
rate  of  about  ten  loads  per 
acre,  or  six  loads  for  this  area. 
Plow  the  land  early  in  the 
spring. 

Lay  off  a  plot  8  by  12  rods 
and  drive  a  stake  every  4  rods, 
as  in  the  figure. 


1 

2 
LIME 

3 

SOIL 

4 
LIME 

AND 

SOIL 

5 
SOIL 

6 
LIME 

A.VD 

SOIL 

VSow  alone 


Sow  with 
barley 
or  oats 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES  241 

Apply  six  bushels  of  lime  to  plots  2,  4,  and  6.  This  is  at  the  rate  of 
tweuty  bushels,  or  about  1,500  pounds  per  acre. 

Inoculate  plots  3,  4,  5,  and  6  with  soil  from  an  alfalfa  field,  or  from 
a  place  v/here  sweet  clover  grows,  using  about  one  or  two  bushels 

Sow  one-third  of  the  alfalfa  seed  on  plots  5  and  6,  with  about  seven 
quarts  of  barley  or  oats. 

Continue  to  harrow  the  other  plots  until  all  weeds  are  subdued, 
then  sow  the  alfalfa  alone,  two  months  before  the  first  frost  is  likely  to 
come, — August  1  in  the  latitude  of  Chicago.  In  regions  where  the 
season  is  long  enough,  potatoes  may  take  the  place  of  the  fallow. 

The  plots  may,  of  course,  be  of  any  size.  The  above  areas  are  large 
enough  to  answer  the  questions.  If  one  desires  to  plant  a  larger  area 
the  following  year,  he  will  know  the  best  method  to  use,  and  will  have 
soil  for  inoculation  purposes,  if  inoculation  proves  to  be  necessary  on 
the  farm. 

59.  Field  Lesson  on  Legumes. 

Find  as  many  kinds  of  legumes  as  possible.  Learn  the  common 
name  of  each.  Learn  to  distinguish  the  different  clovers.  Red  clover, 
by  the  white  spot  on  the  leaf;  alsike,  by  the  absence  of  this  spot,  smaller 
size,  different  colored  blossoms;  white,  by  still  smaller  size  and  un- 
branched  flower-stalks.  Dig  up  each  legume  carefully  and  find  the 
nodules.  Make  a  drawing  of  each  kind  of  nodules.  What  legumes 
require  inoculation  in  your  region? 

60.  How  to  Plant  a  Tree. 

On  Arbor  Day,  or  at  some  other  time,  plant  a  tree  according  to  the 
directions  on  page  227. 

61.  Crop  Production. 

Let  each  student  select  a  farm  crop,  and  leam  all  that  is  pos- 
sible about  the  crop  and  its  production,  and  write  a  complete  discussion 
from  the  preparation  of  the  land  to  marketing  the  crop.  Other  mem- 
bers of  the  class  may  write  up  the  methods  used  in  the  neighborhood 
on  some  important  crop,  with  suggestions  for  improvement. 


242  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 


COLLATERAL  READING 


Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.:   (Select  those  that  apply  to  the  region). 
233.  Root  Systems  of  Field  Crops,  pp.  5-11. 
149.  Shrinkage  of  Farm  Products,  pp.  10-15. 
Corn. 

81.  Corn-growing  for  the  South. 
199.  Corn-growing. 

253.  The  Germination  of  Seed  Com. 
292.  The  Cost  of  Filling  Silos. 
303,  Corn-harvesting  Machinery. 

313.  Harvesting  and  Storing  Corn. 

317.  Increasing  the  Productiveness  of  Corn,  pp.  17-22. 
Shrinkage  of  Corn  in  Cribs,  pp.  22-26. 
Meadows  and  Pastures. 
66.  Meadows  and  Pastures. 
72.  Cattle  Ranges  of  the  Southwest. 
102.  Southern  Forage  Plants. 
147.  Winter  Forage  Crops  for  the  South. 
339.  Alfalfa. 

237.  Lime  and  Clover,  pp.  5-7. 
260.  Seed  of  Red  Clover  and  Its  Impurities. 
323.  Clover  Farming  on  the  Sandy  Jack-Pine  Lands  of  the 

North. 
271.  Forage-crop  Practices  in  Western  Oregon  and  Washington 
312.  A  Successful  Southern  Hay  Farm. 
Cotton. 

36.  Cotton-Seed  and  its  Products. 
48.  The  Manuring  of  Cotton. 
217.  Essential  Steps  in  Securing  an  Early  Crop  of  Cotton. 
302.  Sea-island  Cotton. 

314.  A  method  of  Breeding  Early  Cotton  to  Escape  Bollwee- 

vil  Damage. 
326.  Building  up  a  Run-down  Cotton  Plantation. 
Tobacco. 

60.  Methods  of  Curing  Tobacco. 

82.  The  Culture  of  Tobacco. 

83.  Tobacco  Soils. 

343.  The  Cultivation  of  Tobacco  in  Kentucky. 


COLLATERAL  READING  243 

Forest  Trees. 

134.  Tree-planting  on  Rural  School  Grouuds. 
173.  Primer  of  Forestry. 

262.  Planting  White  Pine  in  New  England,  pp.  31-32. 
276.  Suggestions  for  the  Management  of  the  Farm  Wood-lot, 
pp.  29-32. 

Circulars  of  the  Bureau  of  Forestry,  Nos.: 

3D.  Exhibit  of  Forest  Planting  in  Wood-lots  at  the  Louisiana 

Purchase  Exposition. 
36.  The  Forest  Service. 

97.  The  Timber  Supply  of  the  United  States. 
117.  Preservative  Treatment  of  Fence-posts. 
130.  Forestry  in  the  Public  Schools. 

138.  Suggestions  to  Wood-lot  Owners  in  the  Ohio  Valley  Region. 
145.  Forest  Planting  on  the  Northern  Prairies. 
There  are  publications  among  the  Farmers'  Bulletins  on  nearly 
all  the  other  farm  crops.  The  following  are  a  few  of  the  references, 
arranged  in  alphabetical  order:  Apples,  Nos.  113,  153,  161,  208,  233, 
243,  247,  283.  Asparagus,  Nos.  61,  233,  259.  Basket  Willow,  No.  341. 
Beans,  No.  289.  Broom-corn,  No.  174.  Buckwheat,  No.  267.  Cana- 
dian Field  Peas,  No.  224.  Celery,  Nos.  133,  282.  Cowpeas,  Nos.  309, 
318.  Citrus  fruits.  No.  238.  Cranberries,  Nos.  176,  178,  221.  Cucum- 
bers, No.  254.  Emmer,  Nos.  139,  277.  Flax,  Nos.  27,  274.  Hops, 
Nos.  115,  304.  Kafir  corn,  No.  288.  Maple-sugar,  No.  252.  Millet, 
Nos.  69,  101,  168.  Milo,  No.  322.  Onion,  Nos.  39,  149.  Peach,  Nos. 
33,  80,  208,  276.  Pineapple,  No.  140.  Potato,  Nos.  35,  149,  244,  251. 
Rape,  Nos.  78,  164.  Raspberries,  No.  216.  Rice,  Nos.  110,  305.  Sor^ 
ghum,  Nos.  135,  246,  288.  Soy  beans,  Nos.  58,  309.  Strawberries, 
No.  198.  Sugar-beet,  Nos.  52,  92.  Sweet  Potatoes,  Nos.  129,  273, 
324.    Tomatoes,  No.  220. 

Many  more  references  to  these  crops,  and  references  to  nearly  all 
other  crops,  may  be  found  in  the  Index  to  Farmers'  Bulletins,  Circular 
No.  4,  of  the  Division  of  Publications. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II.    Index. 

Cereals  in  America,  by  T.  F.  Hunt. 

Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  by  T.  F.  Hunt. 

The  Potato,  by  S.  Eraser. 

Corn  Plants,  by  Sargent. 

Cotton,  by  Burkett  &  Poe. 


CHAPTER   YIII 

ENEMIES  OF  FARM  CROPS 

The  chief  enemies  of  farm  crops  are  weeds,-  insects, 
and  diseases  caused  by  parasitic  plants.  A  number  of  the 
larger  animals,  such  as  ground-squirrels,  crows  and  gophers, 
are  sometimes  injurious. 

WEEDS 

219.  What  Is  a  Weed?  A  weed  is  often  described  as  a 
plant  that  is  not  wanted.  The  worst  weed  in  a  corn-field 
may  be  corn;  that  is,  if  corn  is  planted  too  thick,  the  corn 
plants  crowd  each  other  so  that  the  extra  ones  may  do 
more  harm  than  is  done  by  common  weeds.  Johnson  grass 
is  a  valuable  hay  plant  in  the  South,  but  it  is  so  hard  to 
kill  that  it  is  a  very  bad  weed. 

220.  Value  of  Weeds.  Weeds  are  a  benefit,  in  that  they 
force  men  to  till  the  land  and  often  compel  crop-rotation. 
The  farmer  then  secures  the  many  other  benefits  that 
come  from  rotation  and  tillage. 

But  many  weeds  are  of  direct  value.  The  best  plants 
in  pastures  are  sometimes  those  that  are  weeds  elsewhere. 
One  of  the  great  uses  of  weeds  is  to  renew  worn-out  soiL 
In  all  ages  some  men  have  farmed  in  such  a  way  that  the 
soil  has  become  unproductive.  When  soil  becomes  too 
poor  to  grow  crops,  the  hardy  weeds  will  still  grow  on  it, 
and  as  they  decay  will  gradually  build  up  a  productive 

(244) 


Fig.  125.     A  good  spray  rig  for  a  small  orchard 


Fio.  126.     Oats  sprayed  for  killing  mustard  on  the  left,  unsprayed  on  the  right 


■  '■'♦•J 


WEEDS  245 

soil.  Many  fields  in  the  older  parts  of  the  United  States 
have  been  abandoned  at  times  to  recuperate  under  this 
slow  process.  With  good  farming,  such  a  condition  will 
never  arise.  But,  until  our  farming  is  much  improved, 
we  may  be  thankful  that  the  weeds  will  reclaim  land  after 
man  has  exhausted  it. 

221.  The  Control  of  Weeds.  The  first  consideration  in 
the  great  majority  of  cases  should  be  to  secure  conditions 
that  will  favor  the  growth  of  the  crop.  Many  crops  will 
grow  so  vigorously  as  entirely  to  smother  out  the  weeds, 
if  conditions  are  favorable.  But,  if  the  conditions  are  not 
just  right  for  the  crop,  the  weeds  may  overshadow  it. 
There  is  always  strong  competition  between  hay  and  small- 
grain  crops  and  the  weeds.  A  very  sUght  treatment  may 
give  the  one  or  the  other  the  upper  hand.  Fig.  97  shows 
how  lime  produced  this  difference  with  alfalfa.  The 
appUcation  of  Hme  on  this  particular  soil  controlled 
the  weeds,  not  because  it  hurt  the  weeds,  but  because  it 
caused  the  alfalfa  to  grow  so  vigorously  as  to  leave  no  room 
for  weeds.  The  orange  hawkweed  is  very  serious  in  some 
old  worn-out  pastures,  and  farmers  are  wondering  what 
to  put  on  to  kill  it.  The  real  trouble  is  that  the  soil  is  so 
poor  for  grass  that  almost  any  more  hardy  plant  can  crowd 
it  out.  An  application  of  barnyard  manure  and  more  grass 
seed  is  the  real  remedy. 

222.  The  Control  of  Weeds  in  Tilled  Crops.  The  time 
to  kill  weeds  by  tillage  is  before  they  secure  a  foothold. 
Just  as  the  stored  food  in  the  weed  seed  is  exhausted  and 
before  it  has  become  well  rooted,  a  weed  is  very  easily 
killed.  If  we  wait  until  it  has  become  rooted,  it  may  be 
too  late.    Figs.  80  and  81  show  this   difference.     In   one 


246  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

case,  the  corn-field  was  gone  over  with  a  weeder  before 
the  weeds  were  troublesome,  just  as  they  were  coming  up. 
In  the  other  case,  the  farmer  waited  until  the  weeds  were 
large  enough  to  attract  attention.  It  was  then  too  late 
to  kill  all  of  them. 

223.  Subduing  Land  That  Is  Badly  Infested  with  Weeds. 
Some  farms  are  so  badly  infested  with  weeds  that  special 
treatment  becomes  necessary.  Such  land  may  be  summer- 
fallowed,  that  is,  kept  bare  and  tilled  all  one  year.  This 
will  usually  subdue  any  weed,  but  often  is  not  profitable, 
as  the  season's  crop  is  lost  and  the  tillage  is  expensive. 
There  are  several  ways  of  conducting  a  short  fallow  with- 
out the  loss  of  a  crop.  The  land  may  be  plowed  immediately 
after  harvesting  a  crop  of  hay  or  small  grain,  and  be  kept 
stirred  the  remainder  of  the  season;  then  grow  a  tilled 
crop  the  following  year.  Such  treatment  will  usually  clean 
the  land  fairly  well.  This  short  fallow  may  sometimes  be 
reversed.  The  land  may  be  plowed  in  the  fall  or  spring, 
and  be  kept  stirred  until  time  to  sow  a  crop,  such  as  buck- 
wheat or  millet.  The  next  year  a  tilled  crop  may  be  grown. 
The  tillage  will  kill  many  weeds,  and  such  a  crop  as  millet 
will  choke  out  weeds. 

224.  Spraying  for  Wild  Mustard.  Nearly  any  soluble 
chemical  will  kill  plants  if  applied  in  strong  solutions. 
Even  plant  foods,  such  as  nitrate  of  soda,  will  kill  plants 
if  enough  is  applied.  A  solution  may  often  be  used  that 
is  strong  enough  to  kill  certain  weeds,  and  yet  not  strong 
enough  to  harm  certain  crops. 

The  most  important  application  of  this  principle  for 
the  control  of  weeds  is  in  the  case  of  wild  mustard.  This 
plant  is  easily  killed  by  spraying  with  a  solution  of  iron 


WEEDS 


247 


Fig.  127. 

Wild  mustard  the  proper 

size  for  spraying 


sulphate  or  copper  sulphate.  One  hundred  pounds  of  iron 
sulphate  or  12  pounds  of  copper  sulphate  may  be  used  in 
50  gallons  of  water.  In  either  case,  about  50  gallons  is 
sprayed  on  an  acre.  It  is  necessary  to  have  the  spray  hit 
all  the  land.  This  is  accomplished  by  using  one  of  the 
field-spraying  out- 
fits with  plenty  of 
nozzles.  (See  Fig. 
126.)  With  a  prop- 
erly equipped  ma- 
chine, 10  to  20 
acres  may  be 
sprayed  in  a  day. 
The  spraying  is 
best  done  on  a 
bright,    clear    day, 

and  should  be  done  when  the  mustard  has  six  to  eight 
leaves.  Mustard  may  then  be  killed  in  any  of  the  cereals, 
or  in  peas,  without  hurting  the  crops.  Beans,  potatoes, 
and  cabbages  must  not  be  sprayed  with  this  mixture, 
as  these  crops  would  be  killed. 

225.  Control  of  Weeds  in  Walks.  In  walks,  tennis- 
courts  and  some  other  places,  any  plant  is  a  weed.  We 
can  then  use  a  treatment  that  kills  everything.  Salt  may 
be  used.  Carbolic  acid  or  sodium  arsenate  are  more  lasting 
in  their  effect.  A  3  per  cent  solution  of  carboUc  acid  or 
a  2  per  cent  solution  of  sodium  arsenate  is  about  right. 
In  either  case,  about  eight  gallons  will  be  needed  per 
square  rod.  Such  treatments  should  not  be  given  under 
trees,  as  the  trees  as  well  as  the  weeds  are  likely  to  be 
killed. 


248  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

THE  DISEASES   OF   PLANTS 

By  H.  H.  WHETZEL 
Professor  of  Plant  Pathology,  Cornell  University 

Plants,  like  animals,  are  subject  to  many  different  kinds 
of  diseases.  Most  of  the  diseases  of  plants  are  caused  by 
insects  or  by  plant  organisms,  chiefly  fungi  or  bacteria. 
Some  flowering  plants,  as  the  dodder,  also  cause  diseases 
in  other  plants. 

Bacterial  Diseases 

226.  Characteristics    of    Bacteria.      Bacteria    are    the 

smallest  of  all  known  plants.  They  are  to  be  found  almost 
everywhere  on  the  earth,  inside  and  outside  the  human 
body,  in  milk  and  water,  and  even  on  the  dust  particles 
of  the  air.  Like  all  plants,  they  grow  only  where  food  and 
moisture  are  present.  Some  produce  diseases  in  animals; 
some  cause  diseases  in  plants.  By  far  the  most  of  them 
are  harmless  or  beneficial. 

Bacteria  are  among  the  simplest  of  plants.  They  have 
neither  root,  leaves,  nor  flowers,  but  consist  of  single  cells 
made  up  of  living  protoplasm  enclosed  within  a  cell-wall. 
They  are  usually  spherical,  rod-shaped  or  spiral  in  form. 
They  are  commonly  slightly  attached  to  each  other  in 
pairs,  chains  or  clusters.  Many  are  surrounded  by  a  muci- 
laginous substance,  which  may  aid  in  their  distribution. 
Some  are  motile,  being  propelled  through  the  liquid  in 
which  they  live  by  long  whip-like  appendages  (flagella). 
Like  all  plants,  they  take  their  food  in  solution  by  diffusion 
through  their  cell-walls  and  protoplasm.  They  multiply 
very  rapidly,  reaching  maturity  and  dividing  directly  into 


PLANT   DISEASES  249 

two,  often  in  half  an  hour.  Some  species  form  spores 
by  which  they  may  pass  through  periods  of  dryness  or 
other  unfavorable  conditions  without  dying.  No  spore- 
forming  species  is  known  to  cause  disease  in  plants. 

227.  An  Example  of  a  Bacterial  Disease.  The  most 
common  and  destructive  disease  of  pears,  apples  and 
quinces  is  a  bacterial  one  commonly  known  as  fire-blight 
or  pear-blight.  It  occurs  on  other  wild  plants  of  the  apple 
tribe,  and  occasionally  on  plum  trees. 

The  symptom  of  the  disease  so  well  known  to  every 
fruit-grower  is,  chiefly,  the  sudden  death  of  the  blossoms 
or  tips  of  the  growing  twigs.  These  leaves  turn  black  and 
cling  to  the  twigs  after  the  other  leaves  have  fallen.  Some- 
times, especially  on  pear  trees,  the  disease  runs  down  the 
limbs,  often  killing  the  entire  tree. 
Cankers  are  formed  on  the  limbs  and 
bodies  of  trees  about  the  base  of 
blighted  spurs  and  watersprouts. 
Frequently  the  fruit  is  affected,  turns 
brown,  and  shrivels  upon  the  tree. 

The  organism  that  is  responsible 
for  this  disease  is  Bacillus  amylovorus. 
The  bacterium  lives  over  winter  in  Bacteria  Ja?cau?e  pear  bUtiht. 
some  of  the  cankers  on  the  trunks  of  ^^^^^  whetzei.) 

the  trees.  In  the  spring,  sticky,  milky  drops,  containing 
numbers  of  bacteria,  ooze  out  from  these  hold-over  cankers. 
Bees  and  other  insects  carry  the  bacteria  from  these  cankers 
to  opening  flowers  and  tips  of  growing  twigs.  Here  they 
are  introduced  into  wounds  made  by  the  insects.  They 
multiply  rapidly,  and  in  ten  to  fourteen  days  the  flowers 
or  leaves  begin  to  show  the  characteristic  blight. 


250  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

The  control  of  this  disease  is  not  easily  accomplished. 
The  bacteria  kill  or  blight  the  young  shoots  on  the  body 
or  larger  limbs,  passing  from  these  to  the  bark  about 
their  bases.  Here  they  form  the  cankers  in  which  they 
pass  the  winter.  These  cankers  offer  the  most  hopeful 
point  of  attack.  With  a  sharp  knife,  remove  the  canker, 
cutting  well  back  into  the  healthy  bark.  Scrape  out  the 
diseased  bark,  cleaning  the  wound  thoroughly.  Sponge 
the  wound  with  corrosive  sublimate  solution,  one  part  to 
1,000  parts  water.  When  dry,  paint  thoroughly  with 
heavy  lead  oil-paint  and  keep  painted  until  healed  over. 
The  diseased  limbs  and  twigs  in  pear  trees  should  be  re- 
moved promptly  whenever  discovered,  and  frequent  in- 
spections should  be  made.  Always  disinfect  cut  surfaces; 
this  is  absolutely  necessary  for  success. 

Among  the  bacterial  diseases  of  plants  may  be  mentioned 
bacterial  blight  of  beans,  cucumber  wilt,  crown  gall  of 
apples,  peaches,  pears,  etc.,  soft  rot  of  turnips,  black  rot 
of  cabbage,  and  many  others. 

.  Fungous  Diseases 

228.  Characteristics  of  Fungi.  Fungi  are  very  different 
from  bacteria,  though  they  too  are  plants.  Their  vege- 
tative portion  consists  of  branching,  root-like  threads 
called  mycelium  (Fig.  129).  Many  of  them  are  sapro- 
phytes,— ^that  is,  they  live  on  dead  or  decaying  plant  or 
animal  remains.  Others  are  parasites,  which  means  that 
they  take  their  food  from  the  tissues  of  living  plants  or 
animals.  Fungi,  as  well  as  bacteria,  differ  from  the  plants 
with  which  we  are  commonly  famihar,  in  the  absence  of 


PLANT   DISEASES 


251 


the  green  color  due  to  chlorophyll.  Fungi  take  their  food 
from  the  substance  in  or  on  which  the  mycelium  is  grow- 
ing, by  diffusion  of  the  soluble  substances  through  the 
cell-walls  and  protoplasmic  lining  of  the  mycelium.  Many 
fungi  secrete  enzymes  that 
dissolve  cellulose  and 
other  substances,  making 
them  available  for  ab- 
sorption; these  secretions 
often  kill  the  protoplasm 
of  the  host,  thus  compel- 
ling it  to  give  up  nutri- 
tious solutions  to  the 
parasite.  Others  send  spe- 
cialized branches  of  myce- 
Uum  (haustoria)  into  the 
host  cells.  These  absorb 
the  food  substances  that 
come  to  these  cells. 
Eventually,  they  cause  the 
death  of  the  host  cells.  Sometimes  the  irritation  of  the 
parasite  causes  a  response  on  the  part  of  the  host  in  the 
form  of  knots,  sweUings,  etc.  A  good  example  of  this  is 
seen  in  the  black-knot  of  plums  and  cherries. 

During  their  vegetative  stage,  fungi  multiply  by  means 
of  various  kinds  of  asexual  soores  cut  off  from  the  myce- 
hum.  This  method  of  reproduction  corresponds  to  the 
multipHcation  by  sprouts,  sets,  bulbs,  etc.,  of  the  higher 
green  plants.  Many  fungi  are  also  known  to  form  sexual 
spores  called  oospores,  ascospores  or  basidiospores,  accord- 
ing to  the  group  in  which  they  occur.   These  sexual  spores 


Fig.  129. 


The  bread  mold  fungus. 
(Whetzel) 


252 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  130.  Brown-rot 
Healthy  peach  above 
diseased  below. 


correspond   more   nearly   to   the   seeds   of   higher   plants, 
both  in  method  of  formation  and  in  function. 

229.  An  Example  of  a  Fungous  Dis- 
ease. One  of  the  most  common  fun- 
gous diseases  is  the  brown-rot  of 
stone  fruits,  although  apples,  pears, 
etc.,  are  also  more  or  less  subject  to  it. 
It  is  most  destructive  on  peaches  and 
plums.  The  chief  symptom  of  this 
disease  is  the  appearance  of  a  brown 
rot  in  the  fruit,  either  while  it  is  still 
green,  or  at  the  time 
of  ripening.  As  the  disease  progresses,  the 
entire  fruit  becomes  involved.  Tiny  gray 
pustules,  or  spore  masses,  break  through 
the  skin,  and  spores  by  the  thousands  are 
cut  off  in  long  chains  to  be  scattered  by  the 
wind  to  other  fruits,  there  to  reproduce 
the  rot.  The  rotted  fruit  soon  shrivels  and 
dries,  to  form  the  wrinkled  mummies  that 
cUng  to  the  trees  through  the  winter,  or 
fall  to  the  ground  beneath.  With  the  warm 
spring  rains,  the  mummies  on  the  trees  give 
rise  to  new  masses  of  spores.  These  are 
carried  by  the  breeze  to 
the  blossoms  and  green 
fruits,  and  again  give  rise  to  the  rot. 
The  mummies  that  fall  to  the  ground 
usually  produce  the  sexual  spores  (asco- 
FiG.  132.   Spores  of     spores)  in  long,  slender  sacs  (asci),  eight 

brown-rot,  and  a  germ-  •  i  mi  i 

inating  spore.  spores  in  each  sac.   These  sacs  are  borne 


Fig.  131.  Brown- 
rot.  The  mummies 
that  carry  the  dis- 
ease over  winter. 


PLANT   DISEASES  253 

OP  the  inside  of  a  cup,  several  of  which  may  grow  up  from 
each  half-buried  mummy.  The  spores  are  ejected  from  the 
sacs  into  the  air,  to  be  carried  to  blossoms,  where  they 
cause  blight  and  start  the  summer  development  of  the 
disease.  Thus  in  two  ways  this  parasite  may  continue  its 
existence  from  year  to  year.  No  satisfactory  method  of 
controlling  it  is  known.  Some  promise  of  success  is  given 
by  Scott's  so-called  self-boiled  lime  and  sulfur  mixture, 
which  has  recently  been  used  as  a  summer  spray  for  this 
disease  on  peaches.^ 

230.  Other  Fungous  Diseases.  The  apple  scab  lives  over 
winter  on  the  fallen  leaves.  It  ordinarily  attacks  the  young 
apples  and  leaves  at  about  the  blossoming  time.  One 
spraying  just  before  and  one  immediately  after  blossoming 
are  most  important  for  its  control,  but  it  is  usually  neces- 
sary to  spray  three  times  in  order  to  secure  clean  fruit  in 
regions  where  the  scab  is  serious. 

Potato  scab  is  planted  with  the  potato.  It  also  lives 
over  winter  in  the  fields  where  scabby  potatoes  grew. 
It  may  be  controlled  by  soaking  the  potatoes  for  one  to  two 
hours  in  a  mixture  of  one  pint  of  formaHn  to  thirty  gallons 
of  water,  after  which  they  are  spread  out  to  dry  and  are 
ready  to  cut  for  planting.  Thirty  gallons  of  the  solution 
is  sufficient  for  treating  about  twenty  bushels  of  potatoes. 
After  treatment,  the  potatoes  must  not  be  placed  in  the 
old  crates  or  bags,  as  they  would  become  re-infected. 
They  should  be  planted  on  land  which  did  not  grow  scabby 
potatoes,  if  possible.  The  treatment  may  be  of  some  bene- 
fit, even  if  it  is  necessary  to  plant  on  scab-infested  land. 

^W.  M.  Scott,  Self-Boiled  Lime  and  Sulfur  Mixture  as  a  Promising 
Fungicide.  Bureau  Plant  Industry,  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Circular  No.  1. 


264  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Oat  smut  is  carried  by  the  seed  and  may  be  controlled 
in  the  same  manner,  using  one  pint  of  formalin  to  fifty 
gallons  of  water.  The  oats  are  sprinkled  with  this  solu- 
tion until  they  are  moist  enough  to  nearly  pack  in  the  hand. 
Shovel  into  a  pile,  cover  and  leave  two  hours.  Spread  out  to 
dry  before  sowing.   Or  they  may  be  dipped  in  the  solution. 

Stinking  smut  of  wheat  can  be  controlled  by  seed  treat- 
ment. Corn  smut  cannot  be  controlled,  because  the  disease 
lives  over  winter  in  the  fields  and  is  blown  about  by  the  wind. 
The  various  rusts  of  the  grain  plants  cannot  be  controlled. 
Rotation  of  crops  aids  in  controlling  nearly  all  diseases. 

The  bhght  of  potatoes  may  be  controlled  if  the  plants 
are  kept  coated  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  the  fungus.  About  five  sprayings  are  commonly 
given.    In  rainy  seasons  it  sometimes  pays  to  give  more. 

Parasitic  Flowering  Plants 

Relatively  few  flowering  plants  live  as  parasites  upon 
other  plants.  Perhaps  the  most  common  and  destructive 
of  these  are  the  dodders,  which  Hve  on  many  wild  plants 
and  on  some  of  our  cultivated  ones,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa, 
etc.  The  dodder  stems  are  long  yellow  strands  with  no 
leaves,  growing  in  mats  over  their  host  plants.  They  twine 
about  the  host  and  send  haustoria  or  suckers  into  their 
stems,  from  which  they  secure  water  and  food  substances. 

Dodder  seeds  are  usually  small  and  are  carried  with 
the  alfalfa  and  clover  seeds.  The  best  way  to  control  the 
parasite  is  to  secure  seed  from  a  field  that  does  not  contain 
dodder.  The  seeds  of  some  species  of  dodder  may  be  separ- 
ated out  by  sieves. 


INSECTS  255 


INSECTS 


231  Importance  of  Insects.  Insects  seem  to  be  the 
form  of  life  that  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  this  world.  About 
95  per  cent  of  all  kinds  of  animals  are  insects.  In  actual 
numbers  of  individuals  they  are  still  more  in  the  lead. 
Many  of  these  insects  hve  at  our  expense,  and  in  spite  of 
our  efforts  to  subdue  them.  The  cotton-boll  weevil,  chinch- 
bug,  grasshopper,  San  Jose  scale,  codUng  moth,  potato 
beetle,  and  many  others  are  well-known  crop  pests.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  insects  destroy  about  $700,000,000 
worth  of  crops  per  year  in  the  United  States.  It  is  well 
worth  while  for  the  farmer  to  learn  something  of  the  life 
and  habits  of  insects,  in  order  that  he  may  prevent  some 
of  this  loss. 

However,  we  must  not  come  to  think  of  all  insects  as 
harmful;  many  of  them  are  very  useful.  Bees  are  the  first 
of  which  we  think.  These  and  other  insects  are  of  use  in 
carrying  the  pollen  for  certain  crops.  Other  insects  are 
useful  because  they  live  on  the  harmful  kinds. 

232.  What  an  Insect  Is.  All  insects  have  six  legs  in 
their  mature  stage.  This  feature  distinguishes  them  from 
spiders,  which  have  eight  legs,  and  from  milUpedes  and 
centipedes,  which  have  many  legs.  A  caterpillar  appears 
to  have  more  than  six  legs,  but  those  at  the  rear  end  are 
not  true  legs,  as  will  be  seen  by  examining  one.  When 
the  caterpillar  changes  to  a  butterfly  or  moth,  only  the 
six  true  legs  remain. 

The  body  of  an  insect  is  divided  into  three  parts  that 
are  usually  quite  apparent:  head,  thorax  and  abdomen. 
A  wasp  shows  these  parts  very  clearly. 


256 


ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 


233.    Stages   in   the 
Life  of  an  Insect.  Many- 
insects   have   four   dis- 
tinct  periods    in    their 
life.  At  different  stages 
they  look  so  unlike  that 
one   would   never   sus- 
pect that  they  were  the 
same  individual. 
Fig.  133  shows  how  a  common  house-fly  looks  at  dif- 
ferent ages.    The  first  stage  is  the  egg.    From  this  the 
maggot  hatches.    This  is  called  the  larva  stage.    When  the 
fly  maggot  becomes  full-grown,  it  changes  to  the  "pupa 


2  3 

Fig.  133.  Stages  in  the  life  of  a  house-fly: 
3,  larva ;  1,  pupa;  2,  mature  fly.  (After 
Howard.) 


Fig.  134.  Stages  of  the  codling  moth:  a,  the  moth  or  adult  insect,  slightly 
enlarged;  6,  the  egg,  greatly  enlarged;  c,  the  full-grown  larva,  slightly  enlarged; 
d  the  pupa,  slightly  enlarged;  e,  the  pupa  in  its  cocoon  on  the  inner  surtace  ot  a 
piece  of  bark,  reduced  about  one-half;  /,  moth  on  bark  and  empty  pupa  skin  from 
which  it  emerged,  about  natural  size.    TFrom  Simpson.) 


INSECTS 


257 


Fig.  135.     Codling  moth  larva  and  its 
work.    (Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  283) 


stage.  The  pupa  appears  to 
be  inactive  and  is  sometimes 
referred  to  as  a  resting  stage, 
but  this  is  far  from  true. 
Great  transformations  are 
taking  place  inside  the  pupa 
skin.  The  wings  are  develop- 
ing and  the  entire  appearance  of  the  body  is  changing. 
After  these  changes  are  complete,  the  fly  appears  in  the 

mature  stage.  The  pupa 
stage  lasts  five  to  seven 
days,  and  the  larva  stage 
about  as  much  longer,  so 
that  a  new  generation 
may  be  started  every  two 
weeks.  A  single  female 
lays  120  to  160  eggs.  It 
is  easy  to  see  why  flies  be- 
come so  numerous  in  late  summer. 

Each  mosquito,  codling  moth  and  cotton-boll  weevil 
passes  through  these  four 
stages.  Some  insects  do 
not  pass  through  all  these 
stages.  Grasshoppers 
and  some  other  insects 
grow  continually  from  the 
time  they  hatch  until  they 
are  mature.  Some  plant- 
lice  are  born  alive,  so  that  >  «  -f  J^  "^  6 
they  do  not  pass  through                                         ^  „        ., 

•^  ^  °  Fig.  137.     Mature  cotton-boll  weevil, 

the  different  stages.  (After  W.  D.  Hunter.) 


Fig.  136.  Cotton-boll  weevil  larva  at  left; 
pupa  at  the  right.  About  five  times  natural 
dize.    (After  W.  D.  Hunter.) 


258 


ELEMEI^TS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  138. 

Egg  of  codling  moth 

on  apple 


234.  The  Control  of  Insects.  One  cannot  intelligently 
combat  an  insect  without  knowing  its  life  history.  For 
years  we  have  been  trying  to  kill  mature  flies.  Now  we 
are  coming  to  know  that  one  of  the  best  means  of  limiting 
their  numbers  is  to  keep  the  horse  manure  hauled  out,  as  it 
is  in  this  that  the  flies  grow. 

The  effective  way  of  controlUng  mosquitos  is  not  to 
try  to  kill  the  mature  ones,  but  to  eliminate  the  rain- 
water barrels  and  stagnant  water,  where 
they  develop;  or,  if  this  cannot  be  done, 
place  oil  on  the  water  to  kill  the  "wrig- 
glers." 

The  codling  moth  lays  its  egg  on  the 
apple.  The  time  to  kill  it  is  when  the 
young  worm  takes  its  first  meal.  If  we 
wait  until  it  has  entered  the  apple,  it  is  too  late.    There 

must  be  some  poison  on 
the  apple  when  the  worm 
begins  to  eat. 

The  apple  maggot  can- 
not be  controlled  in  this 
way  because  the  small  fly 
that  lays  the  egg  punctures 
the  skin  and  places  the 
egg  in  the  apple.  The  best 
way  to  control  such  a  pest 
is  to  have  the  fallen  apples 
all  eaten  by  hogs  or  sheep. 
The  corn  root-worm  is 
very  serious  in  some  of  the 


Fig.  139. 


Apples  just  right  to  spray 

for  codling  moth  corn   states.      It   does  not 


INSECTS 


259 


live  on  other  crops.   Therefore,  it  may  be  easily  controlled 
by  rotating  crops. 

Few  insects  cause  so  much  loss  in  America  as  the  chinch 
bug.  It  is  most  harmful  in  wheat  fields,  but  often  migrates 
from  the  wheat  to  corn  and  other  crops  and  there  continues 
its  ravages.  There  are  no  satisfactory  remedies  except 
rotation  of  crops. 

We  can  never  hope  to  exterminate  any  insect.  The 
best  we  can  hope  for  is  to  limit  the  numbers  so  that 
serious  damage  will  be  prevented. 

235.  Chewing  and  Sucking  Insects. 
Orchards,  potatoes  and  many  vege- 
tables are  now  commonly  sprayed  for 
the  control  of  insects.  There  are  two 
general  classes  of  insects  so  far  as 
spraying  is  concerned:  those  that 
chew  their  food  and  those  that  suck 
the  juices  of  the  plant.  Potato  beetles 
and  cabbage  worms  eat  the  foliage. 
All  that  is  necessary  in  order  to  kill 
them  is  to  put  some  poison,  such  as 
Paris  green,  on  the  leaves.  The  San 
Jose  scale,  chinch  bug,  and  plant  lice 
suck  the  juices  of  the  plant.  They 
cannot  eat  poison.  To  try  to  poison 
them  would  be  like  trying  to  poison  a 
mosquito  by  placing  poison  on  the  hand.  A  mosquito 
would  merely  insert  his  bill  and  eat  to  his  satisfaction 
without  getting  any  of  the  poison.  In  order  to  kill  these, 
it  is  necessary  to  spray  with  a  contact  insecticide — one 
that  kills  when  it  gets  on  their  bodies. 


Fig.  140. 

Ahnost  too  late  to  spray 

for  codling  moth 


260 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


SPRAYING  FOR  THE  CONTROL  OF   INSECTS 
AND  DISEASES 

236.  Common  Fungicides  and  Insecticides.    There  are 
two  general  classes  of  enemies  for  which  treatment  is  given: 


Fio.  141.     San  Jos6  scale.    Natural  size  on  the  left;  much  enlarged  on  the 
right.    A  sucking  insect.    (After  Howard  and  Morlatt) 

fungi  and  insects.  Those  materials  that  are  used  for  de- 
stroying fungi  are  called  fungicides;  those  that  are  used 
against  insects  are  called  insecticides.  The  following 
list  gives  some  of  the  chief  materials  of  each  kind : 


SPRAYING  261 

Fungicides 
Bordeaux  mixture  Sulfur. 

Copper  sulfate.  Potassium  sulfide. 

Ammoniacal  copper  carbonate.       Formalin. 
Lime-sulfur.  Corrosive  sublimate 

Insecticides 
Poisons  Contact  Remedies 

Paris  green.  Lime-sulfur 

Arsenite  of  soda.  Sulfur 

Arsenite  of  lime.  Whale-oil  soap. 

Arsenate  of  lead  Kerosene  emulsion. 

Hellebore  Crude  petroleum 

Soluble  oils 

Carbolic  acid. 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas. 

Carbon  bisulfide. 

Tobacco. 

It  will  be  seen  that,  in  general,  one  material  is  not  of 
much  value  for  both  insects  and  fungi.  Lime-sulfur 
is  a  good  fungicide  and  contact  insecticide.  In  some  other 
cases  the  same  remedy  does  good  for  both  insects  and 
fungi.  Bordeaux  mixture  repels  the  flea-beetle  on  potatoes, 
and  the  striped  cucumber-  and  melon-beetle,  so  that  it  is 
of  some  value  against  these  insects;  and  Paris  green  is 
of  some  value  as  a  fungicide;  but  generally  we  must  not 
expect  one  remedy  to  be  of  value  against  more  than  one 
of  the  three  classes  of  enemies.  Many  of  the  supposed 
failures  in  spraying  are  due  to  the  use  of  the  wrong  remedy. 

237.  Spraying  for  Fungi.  The  standard  remedy  for 
fungous  diseases  is  Bordeaux  mixture.  This  is  made  of 
copper  sulfate  and  lime.  It  is  the  copper  sulfate  that 
kills  the  fungi.  But  if  it  is  used  alone  it  will  also  injure  the 
foliage.    The  lime  prevents  most  of  this  injury.    As  we 


262  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

have  previously  learned,  the  fungi  are  small  plants  that 
live  on  our  crops.  We  might  say  that  there  are  two  kinds 
of  weeds  that  we  have  to  control, — those  that  grow  on 
the  ground  and  those  that  grow  on  our  crops.  For  the 
one  kind  we  cultivate,  for  the  other  we  spray.  Fungi 
must  be  killed  by  a  fungicide  that  hits  them.  It  is  just 
hke  spraying  for  wild  mustard.  We  can  apply  a  spray 
that  is  so  strong  as  to  kill  the  mustard,  but  that  is  not 
strong  enough  to  harm  the  oats.  If  we  applied  it  too  strong, 
the  oats  would  also  be  killed.  So,  in  use  of  the  Bordeaux 
mixture,  we  can  use  it  strong  enough  to  kill  the  fungi 
without  hurting  the  tree  or  crop.  Certain  trees,  as  peaches 
and  plums,  are  so  tender  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  spray 
without  killing  the  leaves  also. 

Certain  weather  conditions  favor  the  growth  of  fungi, 
just  as  certain  kinds  of  weather  favor  the  growth  of  corn, 
but  weather  cannot  create  the  one  any  more  than  the 
other.  Close,  damp  days,  with  frequent  showers,  are 
favorable  for  the  growth  of  most  fungi. 

Another  essential  in  spraying  for  fungi  is  that  we  spray 
before  they  enter  the  host  plant.  When  a  fungus  seed 
(spore)  grows  and  gets  inside  the  plant,  it  is  too  late  to 
spray.  Spray  on  the  outside  of  a  leaf  does  not  hurt  a  fungus 
that  is  already  inside.  Ordinarily  it  is  some  time  after  the 
fungus  has  gained  entrance  before  the  disease  is  apparent. 
We  must,  therefore,  know  the  life  history  of  the  particu- 
lar fungus,  know  when  it  is  likely  to  enter  the  plant,  and 
spray  before  that  time.  However,  it  is  sometimes  worth 
while  to  spray  when  the  j&rst  plants  show  a  disease,  if 
we  have  not  started  earlier.  In  this  way,  some  of  the  crop 
may  often  be  saved.    Spraying  is  insurance, — it  should  be 


SPRAYING  263 

done  before  the  disease  is  apparent.  Some  years  we  may- 
spray  for  a  disease  that  does  not  develop  seriously,  but  the 
profits  on  the  years  when  diseases  are  bad  will  usually 
be  much  more  than  enough  to  pay  for  the  apparent  loss 
of  labor.  However,  there  are  very  few  years  when  spraying 
does  not  give  some  benefits. 

Another  essential  in  spraying  for  fungi  is  thoroughness. 
If  Paris  green  is  put  on  a  potato  plant,  even  if  only  part 
of  the  leaves  are  hit,  the  potato  bugs  maybe  poisoned. 
If  the  poison  is  there,  the  bug  will  probably  eat  a  poisoned 
leaf  tomorrow  if  he  does  not  get  one  today.  But  when 
we  spray  for  fungi,  only  those  leaves  that  are  hit  are 
protected,  and  the  unsprayed  leaves  furnish  a  place  for 
the  disease  to  enter. 

238.  The    Preparation   of   Bordeaux   Mixture.     Several 

strengths  of  the  spray  are  used,  as  follows: 

Copper  sulfate — Two,  three,  four,  five  or  six  pounds. 
Quicklime — An  equal  number  of  pounds. 
Water — 50  gallons. 

For  plants  with  tender  foliage,  two  pounds  of  lime  and 
two  of  copper  sulfate  are  used;  for  apples  and  pears, 
about  three  to  four  pounds  of  each;  for  potatoes,  six  pounds. 
The  copper  sulfate  is  dissolved  and  the  lime  slaked 
separately.  The  copper  sulfate  is  then  diluted  with  nearly 
all  the  water  before  the  Hme  is  added.  If  the  concentrated 
solutions  of  lime  and  copper  sulfate  are  put  together, 
they  form  a  thick,  curdled  mass  that  will  not  stir  up  readily 
when  the  water  is  added.  The  mixture  is  all  right  if  either 
the  lime  or  the  copper  sulfate  is  diluted  before  adding 
the  other,  or  each  may  be  diluted  with  half  the  water. 
The  former  method  is  usually  most  convenient. 


264  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

If  much  spraying  is  to  be  done,  a  stock  solution  will 
save  time.  For  this,  fill  a  barrel  with  water  and  weigh  out 
one  pound  of  copper  sulfate  for  each  gallon.  Suspend 
this  in  a  bag  in  the  top  of  the  barrel  and  it  will  all  dissolve. 
Instead  of  weighing  it  for  each  tank  of  spray,  we  can  then 
take  out  as  many  gallons  as  we  desire  pounds.  Two  pounds 
may  be  dissolved  in  each  gallon,  if  desired. 

The  lime  may  also  be  slaked  in  quantities.  The  lime 
settles,  and  we  cannot  be  sure  when  we  have  enough  by 
measure,  so  that  if  we  use  a  stock  solution  of  lime  we  should 
also  use  the  potassium  ferrocyanide  test.  This  is  desirable, 
anyway.  Potassium  ferrocyanide  makes  a  yellow  solution. 
If  a  drop  of  it  is  added  to  a  solution  of  copper  sulfate,  it 
turns  a  brick-red.  If  lime  enough  is  first  added  to  neutralize 
the  copper  sulfate,  the  drop  remains  yellow.  About  a 
half  more  lime  is  usually  added  after  the  copper  has  been 
neutralized. 

For  spraying  small  gardens,  stock  solutions  may  be 
kept  in  large  bottles  and  the  proportionate  amounts  used. 

239.  Poisons.  Paris  green  and  arsenate  of  lead  are  the 
most  common  poisons.  Five  ounces  to  a  pound  of  Paris 
green  are  used  in  fifty  gallons  of  spray.  Or  one  to  four 
pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  may  be  used.  The  arsenate  of 
lead  never  hurts  the  foliage,  so  that  it  may  be  used  in  any 
strength.  Paris  green  sometimes  causes  injury  if  used 
too  strong,  or  if  used  without  lime.  Paris  green  is  also 
used  to  dust  on  plants,  either  alone  or  with  lime. 

240.  Contact  Remedies.  The  chief  use  of  contact  reme- 
dies is  to  kill  the  San  Jose  scale.  For  this  purpose,  the 
trees  must  be  sprayed  while  dormant,  because  any  spray 
that  is  strong  enough  to  kill  the  scale  will  also  kill  the  leaves. 


SI-RAYING  265 

Lime-sulfur  spray  is  most  commonly  used.  It  is  usu- 
ally made  about  as  follows: 

Quicklime 15  pounds 

Flowers  of  sulfur 15  pounds 

Water 45  gallons 

The  sulfur  and  lime  are  boiled  in  a  part  of  the  water 
for  about  one  hour.  The  remainder  of  the  water  is  then 
added  and  the  spray  is  ready  for  use. 

The  lime-sulfur  spray  is  also  a  good  fungicide.  It 
will  control  peach-leaf  curl,  and  will  take  the  place  of  Bor- 
deaux mixture  when  this  is  needed  on  dormant  trees. 

Numerous  preparations  of  soluble  oils  are  also  on  the 
market.  Many  of  these  are  good.  Clear  oil  is  not  often 
used,  as  it  is  likely  to  injure  the  trees.  The  soluble  oils 
are  diluted  with  water,  so  as  to  avoid  this  danger. 

Kerosene  emulsion  is  used  for  killing  plant  lice  when 

the  trees  are  in  foliage,  and  is  also  used  on  dormant  trees. 

To  make  it,  use: 

Kerosene 2  gallons 

Soap     ^-pound 

Water 1  gallon 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  hot  water,  add  the  kerosene  and 
churn  thoroughly  until  a  creamy  emulsion  is  formed. 
For  use  on  dormant  trees,  dilute  with  10  to  20  gallons  of 
water.  For  kiUing  plant  lice  on  foliage,  dilute  with  40  to  60 
gallons  of  water. 

241.  Combined  Insecticides  and  Fungicides.  The  in- 
secticides and  fungicides  may  often  be  combined.  In 
most  cases,  it  pays  to  put  Paris  green  or  other  poison  with 
Bordeaux  mixture,  as  in  spraying  apples,  pears,  potatoes, 
etc.    But  this  combination  must  not  be  expected  to  kill 


266  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

plant  lice  or  other  sucking  insects.  There  is  no  generally 
used  spray  that  combines  the  three  purposes — fungicide, 
poison,  and  contact  remedy  for  sucking  insects.  To  be 
successful  in  spraying,  one  must  know  what  he  is  spraying 
for,  and  apply  the  right  spray  at  the  right  time.  Apples 
are  commonly  sprayed  about  three  times,  once  just  before 
blossoming,  once  just  after  the  petals  fall,  and  once  about 
two  weeks  later.  Bordeaux  mixture  and  a  poison  are  com- 
bined. Potatoes  are  commonly  sprayed  about  five  times, 
beginning  when  the  plants  are  about  six  inches  high  and 
repeating  every  one  to  two  weeks,  using  Bordeaux  and 
poison.  The  particular  treatment,  of  course  varies  in 
different  sections,  because  the  weather  and  enemies  differ. 
For  details  in  any  section,  one  should  apply  to  the  State 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  worst  ten  weeds  in  the  neighborhood?  What  is 
the  character  that  makes  each  one  a  bad  weed,  that  is,  able  to  live 
in  spite  of  man?   How  may  each  one  be  most  easily  controlled? 

2.  What  are  the  worst  plant  diseases  in  the  region?  How  may  each 
of  these  be  controlled? 

3.  In  how  many  ways  do  bacteria  differ  from  the  plants  with  which 
you  are  most  familiar?  In  how  many  ways  do  fungi  differ  from  these 
plants  ?  How  do  bacteria  differ  from  fungi  ? 

4.  How  do  spores  differ  from  seeds? 

5.  In  what  ways  may  the  spores  of  disease-producing  fungi  be 
carried  to  the  plants  which  they  infect  ? 

6.  Explain  how  spraying  the  leaves  of  the  potato  with  Bordeaux 
for  late  blight  increases  the  yield  of  tubers. 

7.  Explain  why  spraying  pear  and  apple  trees  will  not  control 
fire  blight.  Why  is  the  removal  and  treatment  of  the  hold-over  cankers 
the  first  step  to  be  taken  in  controlling  this  disease  ? 


LABORATORY   EXERCISES  267 

8.  What  are  the  most  serious  insect  pests  in  your  county?  How 
may  each  be  controlled? 

9.  What  are  the  most  useful  insects  in  the  region?  Do  insects, do 
more  harm  than  good? 

10.  Complete  the  following  reaction  which  takes  place  in  preparing 
Bordeaux  mixture: 

Cu  SO4  +  Ca  (0H)2  =  ? 

11.  What  plants  are  commonly  sprayed  in  your  county?  What 
spray  is  used?  When  is  it  applied?  What  is  the  cost  of  the  sprayer? 
The  cost  of  the  materials?   Of  the  labor?   Does  the  spraying  pay? 


LABORATORY   EXERCISES 

62.  Bacteria  and  Molds. 

Materials. — Three  test  tubes,  cotton,  boiled  potato  or  fruit  (apple- 
sauce is  good);  three'apples,  one  partly  decayed. 

Fill  each  tube  about  one-third  full  of  apple-sauce  or  boiled  potato. 
Plug  each  one  with  cotton.  Set  one  aside.  Put  the  other  two  into  a 
pail  of  water  and  boil  for  half  an  hour.  After  boiling,  set  one  tube  aside 
with  the  cotton  undisturbed.  Take  the  cotton  from  the  third  tube 
and  leave  it  out  for  half  an  hour  or  more,  then  put  it  in  again.  Leave 
these  for  a  few  days  and  see  what  happens.  Account  for  the  difference. 
Is  it  desirable  to  leave  canned  fruit  open  a  few  minutes  before  covering, 
after  cooking?  Why? 

Prick  one  of  the  sound  apples  in  several  places  with  a  pin  which 
has  been  sterilized  by  holding  it  in  a  flame.  Put  the  pin  into  the  rotten 
apple  and  then  into  the  other  sound  apple  Repeat  this  in  several  places. 
Set  the  two  sound  apples  aside  for  about  a  week.  What  happens? 
What  is  one  value  of  the  skin  to  an  apple?  Why  should  fruit  be  picked 
and  handled  with  care? 

63.  Bacteria. 

Materials. — Compound  microscope  magnifying  500  to  1,000  diam- 
eters, if  the  school  has  such  a  microscope  or  can  secure  the  use  of  one 
temporarily.  Examine  some  stagnant  water,  or  some  water  in  which 
seeds  or  bread  have  been  standing  for  a  day  or  so.  This  will  contain 
many  forms  of  bacteria  and  other  living  things.  Most  of  the  bacteria 
are  small,  short  rods.  In  many  cases  there  are  longer  rods  made  up  of 
two  or  more  plants  fastened  end  to  end.  Each  of  the  plants  is  a  single 
cell.    They  multiply  by  the  simple  division  of  each  plant  into  two, 


268  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

They  may  reach  their  full  growth  in  less  than  an  hour.   Make  drawings 
of  the  different  forms. 

64.  Bread  Mold. 

Materials. — A  slice  of  stale  bread,  several  glasses  or  jars,  magnify- 
ing glass,  compound  microscope. 

Moisten  a  piece  of  bread  slightly  and  place  in  one  of  the  jars  or 
tumblers,  and  keep  covered.  In  about  a  week  the  bread  will  probably 
be  covered  with  black  mold.  Examine  with  the  lens,  notice  the  white, 
moldy  growth — the  mycelium  of  the  fungus.  The  mycelium  corresponds 
to  the  roots,  stems  and  leaves  of  other  plants.  It  takes  its  food  from 
the  bread.  The  fungus  requires  heat,  moisture  and  food  for  its  growth, 
but  does  not  require  light,  because  it  is  a  saprophyte.  Notice  that  the 
dark  color  is  due  to  black  specks  attached  to  the  mycelium  threads; 
these  are  spore  cases.  Each  one  is  called  a  sporangium.  Some  of  these 
are  white.  These  are  the  young,  or  unripe  ones.  These  spores  corre- 
spond to  seed,  while  the  sporangium  corresponds  to  a  pod.  Make  draw- 
ings of  all  the  parts. 

Mount  some  of  the  fungus  in  a  drop  of  water  and  examine  with  a 
compound  microscope.  Make  drawings  of  mycelium,  sporangium  and 
spores.    (See  Fig.  129.) 

65.  Transformations  of  an  Insect. 

Bring  in  cabbage  worms,  caterpillars  and  other  insects,  and  place 
in  jars  in  the  laboratory.  Feed  with  the  proper  plants  and  watch  the 
transformations.  Make  drawings  of  each  stage  in  the  life  of  at  least 
one  insect.  For  this  work  a  terrarium  is  very  desirable.  It  is  a 
box  with  glass  sides  and  cover  that  can  be  conveniently  opened  and 
closed. 

66.  A  Study  of  a  Grasshopper. 

Supply  each  student  with  one  or  two  grasshoppers  (or  other  mature 
insects).  How  many  divisions  in  the  body?  How  many  legs  does  it 
have?  What  difference  is  there  between  the  hind  legs  and  the  other 
pairs  ?  How  many  wings  are  there  ?  Do  all  insects  have  this  number 
of  wings?  How  are  the  wings  folded?  What  differences  between  the 
outer  and  the  inner  pair?  To  what  part  of  the  body  are  the  wings 
attached?  The  legs?  Find  the  antennae  (feelers).  Examine  the  jaws. 
Do  they  move  in  the  same  way  that  yours  do?  If  you  have  a  com- 
pound microscope,  see  whether  you  can  find  the  divisions  of  the 
compound  eyes.  Make  drawings. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES 


269 


67.   Preparation  of  Bordeaux  Mixture. 

Materials. — Half  a  pound  of  copper  sulfate,  half  a  pound  of 
quicklime,  five  cents  worth  of  potassium  ferrocyanide.  Two-quart 
fruit-jars.   A  measure  marked  in  ounces. 

Dissolve  the  potassium  ferrocyanide  in  a  two-ounce  bottle  of  water 
and  label  "poison." 

Prepare  a  stock  solution  of  copper  sulfate  by  dissolving  the  half- 
pound  in  a  two-quart  jar  of  water.  This  will  be  at  the  rate  of  one  pound 
per  gallon. 

Slake  the  lime  and  then  dilute  to  two  quarts. 

1.  Place  three  ounces  of  the  stock  solution  of  copper  sulfate  in 
one  two-quart  jar;  fill  nearly  full  of  water,  then  add  a  little  of  the  stock 
solution  of  lime  and  test  by  adding  a  drop  of  potassium  ferrocyanide. 
If  there  is  enough  lime,  the  drop  will  remain  yellow.  If  there  is  not 
enough,  it  will  turn  a  brick-red.  About  a  half  more  lime  than  the  test 
requires  should  be  used.  This  will  probably  take  about  three  ounces 
of  the  stock  solution  of  lime  if  it  is  well  stirred.  Set  aside  to  compare 
with  2,  3  and  4. 

2.  Put  three  ounces  of  the  stock  solution  of  lime  in  a  second  jar 
and  fill  nearly  full  of  water;  then  add  three  ounces  of  copper  sulfate. 

3.  In  a  third  jar,  put  three  ounces  of  copper  sulfate  solution  and 
fill  half  full  of  water.  In  a  fourth,  put  three  ounces  of  lime  solution  and 
fill  half  full  of  water.  Pour  these  into  another  jar  at  the  same  time. 

4.  Put  three  ounces  of  copper  sulfate  solution  into  a  jar,  then  add 
three  ounces  of  lime  solution  and  add  water  to  fill  the  jar. 

Set  these  four  jars  side  by  side.  The  material  will  gradually  settle. 
Measure  the  height  of  each  one  and  fill  out  the  following  table: 


Condition  when  mixed 

Height  of  column 

At 
beginning 

End  30 
minutes 

1  hour 

1  day 

1.  Copper  sulfate  dilute 

2.  Lime  dilute 

3.  Both  dilute 

4.  Neither  dilute 

Why  does  the  material  settle  more  rapidly  in  one  than  in  another? 
Which  mixture  would  clog  a  spray  nozzle  most  ?  Which  would  be  most 
evenly  distributed  by  spraying? 


270  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

Shake  the  mixture  which  proves  best  and  allow  it  to  settle  again, 
making  note  of  the  time  required.  Compare  this  with  the  time  that  it 
took  the  first  mixture  to  settle.  Would  it  be  desirable  to  use  old  Bor- 
deaux  mixture  ? 

How  much  of  the  above  stock  solution  of  copper  sulfate  would  be 
required  to  make  one  gallon  of  a  2  :  2  :  50  (2  pounds  copper  sulfate, 
2  pounds  lime,  50  gallons  water)  spray?  Fifty  gallons  of  a  4  :  4  :  50 
spray? 

COLLATERAL   READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.: 

28.  Weeds,  and  How  to  Kill  Them. 
279.  A  Method  of  Eradicating  Johnson  Grass. 
188.  Weeds  Used  in  Medicine. 
334.  Vitality  of  Weed  Seeds  in  Manure,  p.  18. 
Weed  Seeds  in  Feeding  Stuffs,  pp.  18, 19. 
345.  Some  Common  Disinfectants. 

243.  Fungicides  and  Their  use  in  Preventing  Diseases  of  Fruits 
305.  Injury  by  Bordeaux  Mixture,  pp.  12,  13. 

127.  Important  Insecticides. 

227.  Lime,  Sulfur  and  Salt  Wash,  pp.  19-22. 

281.  Soluble  Oils  for  the  San  Jose  Scale,  pp.  17,  18. 

329.  Preparation  of  Soluble  Oils,  pp.  26-28. 

244.  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock,  p.  11. 
259.  Disease-Resistant  Crops,  pp.  15,  16. 
237.  Apple-growing  in  New  York,  pp.  8-11. 
267.  Apple  Bitter  Rot,  pp.  21-23. 

283.  Spraying  for  Apple  Diseases  and  the  Codling  Moth  in  the 
Ozarks. 
91.  Potato  Diseases  and  Treatment. 
316.  Potato  Scab,  pp.  11, 12. 
320.  Potato  Spraying,  pp.  22,  23. 
219.  Lessons  from  the  Grain  Rust  Epidemic  of  1904. 
250.  The  Prevention  of  Wheat  Smut  and  Loose  Smut  of  Oats. 
132.  Insect  Enemies  of  Growing  Wheat. 
231.  Spraying  for  Cucumber  and  Melon  Diseases. 
223.  Miscellaneous  Cotton  Insects  in  Texas. 
290.  The  Cotton  Bollworm. 
344.  The  Boll  Weevil  Problem. 
333.  Cotton  Wilt. 


COLLATERAL  READING  271 

47.  Insects  Affecting  the  Cotton  Plant. 
209.  Controlling  the  Boll  Weevil  in  Cotton  Seed  and  at  Gin- 
neries. 
211.  The  Use  of  Paris  Green  in  Controlling  the  Cotton  Boll 

Weevil. 
126.  Insects  Affecting  Tobacco. 
172,  Scale  Insects  and  Mites  on  Citrous  Trees. 
264.  The  Brown-tail  Moth  and  How  to  Control  It. 
275.  The  Gipsy  Moth  and  How  to  Control  It. 
155.  How  Insects  Affect  Health  in  Rural  Districts. 
221.  Fungous  Diseases  of  the  Cranberry. 
178.  Insects  Injurious  to  Cranberry  Culture. 
284.  Insect  and  Fungous  Enemies  of  the  Grape  East  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

99.  Insect  Enemies  of  Shade  Trees. 

59.  Bee-keeping. 

54.  Some  Common  Birds. 
196.  Usefulness  of  the  American  Toad. 
297.  Methods  of  Destroying  Rats. 
335.  Harmful  and  Beneficial  Mammals  of  the  Arid  Interior. 

The  Cereals  in  America,  and  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America 
The  more  important  enemies  of  crops  are  discussed.  See  table  of 
contents  and  index. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  35-53,  110-118, 
and  index. 


CHAPTER   IX 
SYSTEMS  OF  CROPPING 

One  of  the  first  farm-management  questions  to  be 
considered  is  the  kind  of  crops  to  grow  and  the  order 
in  which  they  shall  be  grown. 

242.  The  Choice  of  Crops.  The  choice  of  crops  is  much 
more  than  a  question  of  which  crops  will  sell  for  the  most 
per  acre,  or  even  which  will  produce  the  most  net  profit 
per  acre.  Corn  may  pay  better  than  oats,  yet  it  may  be 
wise  to  continue  to  grow  oats.  One  can  raise  all  the  corn 
that  he  has  time  to  grow  and  raise  some  oats  besides, 
because  most  of  the  work  on  the  oat  crop  comes  at  a  time 
when  the  corn  crop  does  not  require  attention.  Barley, 
oats  and  spring  wheat  require  work  at  about  the  same 
time,  so  that  a  farmer  usually  chooses  one  from  these. 
Rye  and  v/inter  wheat  are  also  competitors,  but  neither 
one  interferes  much  with  the  work  of  raising  spring  grains. 

The  general  principle  is  that  a  farmer  should  have 
work  for  the  entire  year.  Each  day  he  should  do  the  kind 
of  work  that  pays  best  on  that  day,  although  it  may  be 
much  less  profitable  than  work  that  he  might  do  at  some 
other  time.    The  same  principle  applies  in  all  occupations. 

While  a  small  number  of  crops  is  better  than  a  single 
crop,  yet  it  is  not  well  to  have  too  many  nor  to  have  too 
small  areas  of  each.  In  order  to  grow  potatoes  profitably, 
one  usually  needs  to  have  considerable  special  machinery, 
such  as  a  planter,  a  digger,  and  a  sprayer.    One  cannot 

(272) 


SYSTEMS   OF   CROPPING  273 

afford  to  have  these  \7ith0ut  a  considerable  area.  The 
interest  and  depreciation  on  these  machines  will  likely 
amount  to  $25  to  $50  per  year,  an  amount  that  is  too 
high  a  tax  for  a  small  area  to  carry.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  special  machinery  for  small  orchards  and  for  many 
other  crops.  These  remarks  do  not  apply  to  the  raising 
of  small  quantities  of  vegetables  and  fruits  for  home  use. 

With  the  exception  of  some  very  specialized  types 
of  farming,  some  crops  that  are  to  be  fed  to  animals 
should  be  grown  in  order  to  keep  up  the  fertility  of  the 
land. 

In  choosing  what  crops  to  grow,  it  is  well  to  follow  the 
practice  of  the  best  farmers  in  the  section  until  one  gets 
started.    Changes  may  then  be  introduced  gradually. 

243.  The  Rotation  of.  Crops.  Rotation  means  that  the 
crops  grown  on  each  field  are  changed  from  time  to  time. 
Practically  every  farmer  does  change  crops  occasionally. 
Still,  we  have  farms  on  which  nothing  but  cotton  has  been 
grown  for  years;  others,  on  which  no  crop  but  wheat 
has  ever  been  planted.  Sooner  or  later,  all  farmers  will 
come  to  practice  some  rotation.  If  no  other  system  is 
followed,  the  land  will  be  abandoned  for  a  time  to  grow 
weeds,  which  is  a  primitive  kind  of  rotation.  The  present 
practices  are  haphazard,  but  some  of  the  best  farmers  in 
all  sections  are  coming  to  more  or  less  definite  systems. 
We  do  not  usually  speak  of  the  haphazard  changes  a» 
crop-rotation. 

244.  Crop-Rotation  and  Diversified  Crops.  The  advan- 
tages of  having  a  variety  of  crops  are  often  confused  with 
the  advantages  that  come  from  crop-rotation.  Diversi- 
fication  of   crops   keeps   the   laborer   employed   the   year 


274  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

around;  it  provides  for  cash  crops  and  crops  to  feed;  it 
prevents  total  failure  when  one  crop  fails.  All  these 
advantages  may  be  had  when  each  of  the  several  crops 
grows  on  the  same  field  continuously. 

245.  Advantages  of  Crop-Rotation.  The  rotation  of 
crops  (1)  helps  to  control  weeds,  insects  and  fungi;  (2)  it 
provides  for  keeping  up  the  humus  supply  on  each  field; 
(3)  it  may  provide  for  the  growth  of  grass  and  legumes 
on  each  field;  (4)  it  often  saves  labor;  (5)  it  keeps  the 
land  occupied  with  plants  a  greater  part  of  the  time; 
(6)  it  allows  the  alternation  of  deep-  and  shallow-rooted 
crops;  (7)  it  may  provide  for  a  balanced  removal  of  plant- 
food;  (8)  it  is  possible  that  toxic  substances  may  be  de- 
stroyed; (9)  it  systematizes  farming. 

(1)  Nearly  every  crop  is  accompanied  by  certain  kinds 
of  weeds  that  are  able  to  grow  with  it.  The  weeds  that 
thrive  in  small  grain  are  usually  quite  different  from  those 
that  thrive  in  meadows.  If  small  grain  is  grown  continu- 
ously, the  land  is  likely  to  become  very  weedy.  These 
particular  weeds  are  likely  to  be  easily  killed  by  cultiva- 
tion. Wild  oats  are  a  serious  pest  in  the  grain  fields  in 
Minnesota,  but  if  crop-rotation  is  practiced  they  readily 
disappear.  Such  weeds  as  daisies  may  be  bad  in  hay  land, 
but  are  not  serious  in  corn.  The  opposite  is  true  of  pig- 
weeds. 

Similarly,  there  are  many  diseases  and  insects  that 
live  on  one  crop  but  that  are  not  harmful  to  another. 
The  soil  may  become  infested  with  potato-scab  or  corn- 
root-worm,  but  crop-rotation  will  check  either. 

(2)  If  crops  are  not  rotated,  those  fields  that  are  con- 
stantly in  tilled  crops  will  have  their  humus  supply  ex- 


SYSTEMS  OF  CROPPING  275 

hausted,  and  the  numerous  evil  results  that  follow  such 
exhaustion  will  be  brought  on.  The  control  of  weeds, 
diseases  and  insects  and  the  maintenance  of  the  humus 
supply  are  the  most  important  reasons  for  rotating  crops. 

(3)  If  crops  are  rotated,  we  may  have  legumes  and 
grass  on  all  the  fields  occasionally.  As  we  have  previously 
learned,  these  crops  are  important  in  keeping  up  the  pro- 
ductivity of  the  land. 

(4)  Labor  is  often  saved  by  crop-rotation.  Grasses 
are  sown  in  small  grain,  so  that  the  land  needs  but  one 
fitting  for  two  crops.  Oats  are  often  disked  in  on  corn 
land  without  the  land  having  to  be  plowed.  In  Minnesota 
and  some  other  states,  the  disking  is  better  than  plowing, 
both  for  oats  and  for  the  grass  seeding  in  oats.  It  is  often 
convenient  to  be  able  to  work  land  at  times  when  it  could 
not  be  done  if  crops  were  not  rotated. 

(5)  By  crop-rotation  the  land  may  be  kept  occupied 
more  of  the  time.  Grass  seeded  in  oats  occupies  the  land 
after  the  oats  are  cut.  If  corn  follows  grass,  the  land 
may  have  the  benefit  of  the  grass  cover  until  plowed  for 
corn.  Where  the  season  is  long  enough,  it  is  possible  to 
rotate  crops  so  as  to  grow  more  than  one  crop  in  a  year. 
One  of  the  best  rotations  for  the  South  provides  five  crops 
in  three  years. 

(6)  Deep-  and  shallow-rooted  crops  may  be  alternated, 
thus  allowing  the  use  of  different  layers  of  soil. 

(7)  Formerly  it  was  thought  that  the  chief  reason 
for  rotation  was  that  plants  use  the  different  plant-foods 
in  different  proportions,  so  that  when  the  soil  became 
exhausted  for  one  crop  it  might  contain  the  kind  of  food 
that  the  other  crop  required.    As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 


276 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


PASTURE 
24. 71  A. 


OATS 
19.13  A. 


BARLEY 
14  70  A. 


OATS 
19  04  A 


CORN 
12.86  A. 


Fig.  142.     Fields  on    a  160-acre  farm  in 
Minnesota 


increased  yields  result- 
ing from  crop-rotation 
will  cause  the  removal 
of  more  of  each  kind 
of  plant-food  than  will 
be  taken  from  the  field 
by  the  smaller  yields 
that  are  secured  if  any 
one  crop  is  grown  con- 
tinuously. However, 
the  fact  that  different 
plants  do  use  the  plant- 
food  in  different  pro- 
portions may  be  of  some  importance. 

(8)  It  is  thought  by  some  persons  that  each  plant 
gives  off  certain  substances  through  its  roots  that  are 
toxic,  or  poisonous,  to  that  plant,  but  that  may  not  be 
harmful  to  some  other 

crop.  This  theory  has 
not  yet  been  accepted 
by  all  investigators. 

(9)  Crop -rotation 
systematizes  farming. 
It  does  not  make  farm- 
ing more  complex  or 
make  more  fields,  as 
some  have  supposed. 
Thought  is  required  in 
getting  the  system  es- 
tablished. The  farm  Fig.  143.  Same  farm  as  Fig.  142,  with  the 
vTr.r,-rT     -^^^A      +^     U^     «^             fields  arranged  for  a  five-year  rotation  (Minne- 

may    need    to    be   re-       sota  Bulletin  No.  109.) 


FIELD  "A* 

-  27  ACRES 

1 

'05- 
'06- 

PASTURE 
OATS 

FARMSTEAD 

:g^: 

E^N 

8  ACRES 

69- 
'10- 

MEADOW 

'ASTURE 

FIELD  *B' 

FIELD  'C" 

FIELD  *D" 

FIELD 'E' 

27  ACRES 

27  ACRES 

27  ACRES 

27  ACRES 

135  -  GRAIN 

'05  -  GRAIN 

'05 -CORN 

'05 -OATS 

'06  -  PASTURE 

'06  -  MEADOW 

'06  ■  GRAIN 

'06- CORN 

'07  -  OATS 

'07  -  PASTURE 

■07 -MEADOW 

'07 -GRAIN 

'08  -  CORN 

'08  -  OATS 

'08- PASTURE 

'08- MEADOW 

'09  -  GRAIN 

t)9  -  CORN 

'09 -OATS 

'09-W&TURE/ 
'10 -OATS       ' 

'10  -  MEADOW 

'ID  ■  SRAIN 

'10 -CORN 

PERMANENT 

MEADOW 

"••.'"'■ 

14      AC 

^ES 

iJ 

SYSTEMS   OF  CROPPING  277 

arranged  when  the  work  is  begun.  After  a  systematic 
rotation  is  established,  it  simpUfies  the  farming.  Figs.  142 
and  143  show  how  the  re-arrangement  of  fields  and  the 
establishment  of  a  rotation  have  simplified  a  farm  lay-out. 
Formerly  there  were  more  fields,  and  each  year  the  crop- 
ping scheme  had  to  be  worked  out. 

246.  Profits  from  Rotation.  Crops  differ  in  necessity 
for  rotation.  At  Rothamsted,  England,^  where  experi- 
ments have  been  conducted  for  fifty  years,  it  has  been 
found  possible  to  grow  good  crops  of  roots,  turnips,  mangels, 
etc.,  without  rotation,  if  the  land  is  properly  fertiUzed. 
Wheat  and  barley  were  improved  by  rotation.  Legumi- 
nous crops  failed  entirely  if  grown  continuously  on  the 
same  land. 

Wheat  was  grown  in  a  four-year  rotation  for  forty- 
eight  years,  giving  twelve  crops  of  wheat  and  thirty-six 
crops  of  other  kinds.  The  average  yields  of  wheat  for  the 
twelve  years  compared  with  the  yields  for  the  same  years 
on  land  continuously  in  wheat,  were  as  follows: 

Continuous  wheat,  average  yield,  12  crops,  12.4  bushels  per  acre. 
Wheat,  in  4-year  rotation,  average  yield,  12  crops,  28.6  bushels 
per  acre. 

A  similar  experiment  with  barley  gave  the  following 

results: 

Continuous  barley,  average  of  12  crops,  1,735  pounds  per  acre. 
Barley  in  rotation,  average  of  12  crops,  2,960  pounds  per  acre. 

247.  Crop-Rotation  and  Crop-Failure.  Sometimes  the 
grass  seeding  may  fail,  or  frosts  or  rains  may  spoil  a  crop. 
These  emergencies  can  be  met  without  interfering  with 
the  rotation.    If  a  grass  seeding  in  grain  fails,  it  may  be 

*The  Book  of  the  Rothamsted  Experiments,  by  A.  D.  Hall. 


278  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

re-seeded  in  the  fall.  If  a  frost  kills  a  crop,  it  may  be 
re-planted,  or,  if  too  late,  a  catch-crop  may  be  put  in 
for  that  year  and  the  rotation  continued  the  next  year. 

248.  Variation  of  Crop  Areas.  An  objection  to  rota- 
tion is  that  it  fixes  the  area  of  each  crop  each  year. 
Some  persons  think  that  a  farmer  should  watch  the  market 
and  vary  the  areas  of  different  crops  to  meet  the  market 
demands.  Usually  it  is  very  unwise  for  a  farmer  to  enter 
this  field  of  speculation. 

The  real  business  practice  for  most  men  to  follow  is 
to  decide  on  what  crops  pay  best  from  year  to  year.  Decide 
on  the  proper  acreage  of  each.  Fix  the  rotation,  and  then 
raise  the  same  area  each  year,  regardless  of  prices.  If  the 
original  selection  is  wise,  this  practice  will  have  every- 
thing in  its  favor.  It  will  use  a  constant  supply  of  labor 
and  machinery,  rather  than  have  equipment  idle  every 
other  year  as  the  farmer  oscillates,  usually  just  in  time 
to  miss  rather  than  meet  the  high  prices. 

249.  Examples  of  Rotations.  A  five-year  rotation  of 
corn,  oats,  wheat,  grass  two  years,  is  practiced  by  many 
of  the  best  farmers  of  the  northern  states.  This  re- 
quires that  the  farm  be  divided  into  at  least  five  fields. 
Corn,  oats,  wheat,  each  occupies  one-fifth  of  the  farm. 
One-fifth  is  in  clover  and  timothy  one  year  old,  and 
one-fifth  in  timothy,  as  the  clover  is  usually  not  very 
abundant  the  second  year.  On  many  farms  in  this  sec- 
tion there  is  a  permanent  pasture.  If  there  is  none,  one 
of  the  meadows  in  the  rotation  is  used  as  a  pasture.  In 
this  rotation,  manure  is  usually  put  on  the  corn,  and 
some  fertiUzer  may  be  used  on  the  oats  and  the  wheat. 
The  grass  and  clover  are  seeded  in  the  wheat.    With  the 


SYSTEMS   OF  CROPPING  279 

present  prices  of  hay,  it  will  often  pay  to  use  a  nitrogenous 
fertilizer  on  the  grass  land  if  there  is  not  enough  manure. 
Such  farms  usually  sell  dairy  products,  hay  and  wheat; 
and  buy  grain  feeds. 

Many  variations  are  made  in  this  system.  One  of  the 
commonest  is  to  allow  the  grass  to  stand  for  more  than 
two  years.  Where  potatoes  are  profitable,  they  may  replace 
half  of  the  corn;  then  oats  will  follow  both  of  these  crops; 
otherwise,  the  rotation  is  unchanged.  The  potatoes  fur- 
nish an  additional  cash  crop,  and  usually  add  to  the  profit 
if  the  soil  is  satisfactory  for  them. 

The  following  three-year  rotation  is  practiced  in  sev- 
eral potato  sections  that  have  light  soils:  Potatoes,  wheat 
or  oats,  clover  and  timothy.  This  allows  one-third  of 
the  farm  to  be  in  potatoes  each  year.  The  second  crop 
of  clover  is  plowed  under  and  sometimes  the  entire  hay 
crop.  The  grain  and  hay  are  usually  sold.  Little  stock 
is  kept  and  commercial  fertilizers  are  purchased  in  large 
quantities. 

A  good  rotation  for  the  corn-belt  is  corn  two  years, 
oats,  clover  and  timothy.  Wheat  may  take  the  place  of 
oats.  The  grass  may  be  left  two  or  more  years,  and  may  be 
used  as  a  pasture  if  there  is  not  a  permanent  one. 

For  regions  where  alfalfa  is  successful,  this  crop  may 
be  grown  four  years,  and  followed  by  corn  two  years 
and  small  grain  one  or  two  years. 

For  cotton  farms,  the  most  highly  recommended 
rotation  is:  First  year,  corn  with  cowpeas  planted  between 
the  rows  or  sown  broadcast  at  the  last  cultivation;  second 
year,  oats,  after  which  a  crop  of  cowpeas  is  grown;  third 
year,  cotton.     In  starting   this  system,  the  best   third  of 


280  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

the  farm  is  planted  to  cotton.  In  a  few  years,  this  rotation 
will  produce  more  cotton  than  could  be  grown  on  the 
entire   farm   without  rotation. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  rotations,  if  any,  are  followed  in  your  county? 

2.  What  rotations  were  formerly  followed  and  how  is  the  practice 
changing  ? 

3.  What  changes  should  be  made?  Why?  Ask  the  opinions  of  the 
best  farmers;  also  consider  what  you  have  read  on  agriculture. 

LABORATORY   EXERCISE 

68     Planning  a  Cropping  System. 

Visit  a  farm  near  the  school  and  learn  what  crops  were  grown 
on  each  field  last  year  and  what  crops  the  owner  expects  to  grow 
next  year.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  farm,  showing  the  present  arrange- 
ment of  fields,  approximate  areas  of  each,  and  write  in  the  present 
crops.  The  entire  class  should  go  over  each  field  to  see  the  present 
conditions. 

Each  student  should  later  make  a  map  of  the  farm,  showing  the 
arrangement  of  fields  that  he  considers  best. 

Give  the  crops  for  each  field  for  five  years,  or  long  enough  to  get 
the  rotation  established.  It  will  usually  take  two  or  three  years  to 
get  the  rotation  going  regularly. 

COLLATERAL  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.: 

337.  Cropping  Systems  for  New  England  Dairy  Farms. 
144.  Rotation  of  Crops,  pp.  8-11. 
98.  Suggestions  to  Southern  Farmers,  pp.  38-46. 
The  Fertility  of  the  Land,  by  I.  P.  Roberts.   Chapter  XV. 
Soils  and  Fertilizers,  by  H.  Snyder.    Pp.  Ill,   112,  and  230-240. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  88-109,  and  index. 
The  Cereals  in  America,  by  T.  F.  Hunt.    Pp.  74,  209,  294,  329, 
348,  361,  388,  405. 

The  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  by  T.  F.  Hunt.  Pp.  344- 
346. 


•  •       • 


•   • ••    t   m 


Fig.  144.     Cutting  com  for  the  silo 


Fio.  146.    Filling  a  silo 


CHAPTER   X 
FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

250.  Importance  of  Animal  Food  and  Work.  ''It  is 
estimated  by  competent  authority  that  over  45  per  cent 
of  the  food  consumption  of  the  better  classes  in  the  United 
States  consists  of  animal  products.  Taking  into  account 
the  relatively  higher  prices  of  these  materials,  it  seems 
safe  to  estimate  that  fui'y  half  the  amount  spent  for  food 
by  the  average  well-to-do  family  goes  for  the  purchase 
of  meat,  eggs  and  dairy  products.  Moreover,  whatever, 
in  the  Ught  of  recent  discussion,  may  be  our  attitude 
toward  vegetarianism,  or  our  judgment  as  to  the  neces- 
sary proteid  supply,  it  is  certainly  a  fact,  however  we 
may  explain  it,  that  those  peoples  are,  as  a  whole,  m^ost 
efficient  which  consume  a  reasonable  proportion  of  animal 
food 

''These  enormous  sums  spent  for  meat  represent  to 
a  considerable  extent  the  indirect  utilization  through 
the  animal  of  farm  products  which  would  otherwise 
have  no  nutritive  value  for  man.  This  is  true  on  the  one 
hand  of  the  leaves,  stems,  husks,  pods,  etc.,  of  our  vari- 
ous farm  crops — ^the  so-called  coarse  fodders — and,  on 
the  other,  of  those  manufacturing  by-products  which 
accumulate  in  the  preparation  of  grains  and  other  raw 
materials  for  human  consumption.  By  feeding  these 
products  to  our  domestic  animals,  we  utilize  for  feeding 
man  or  performing  his  work  a  portion  of  their  stored-up 

(281^ 


282  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

energy,  which  would  otherwise  be  practically  an  entire 
waste.  Of  course,  surplus  edible  products  are  also  utilized 
in  stock-feeding,  and,  in  this  country,  very  largely  so. 
This,  however,  can  only  be  regarded  as  a  temporary  phase 
of  our  agriculture.  While,  on  the  fertile  soil  of  the  corn- 
belt,  it  is  often  found  more  profitable  to  convert  corn  into 
beef  or  pork  than  to  market  it  directly,  as  the  density 
of  population  and  the  demand  for  breadstuffs  increases, 
the  stock-feeder  will  be  more  and  more  constrained  to 
the  use  of  the  cheaper  by-product  feeds  in  place  of  grain. 
From  the  economic  point  of  view,  then,  it  is  highly  im- 
portant that  that  portion  of  our  national  wealth  repre- 
sented by  these  inedible  products  should  be  utiUzed  to 
the  best  advantage,  yielding  a  greater  aggregate  profit 
to  the  producer  and  a  more  liberal  supply  of  animal  food 
to  the  consumer."^ 


COMPOSITION   OF   FEEDS 

For  feeding  purposes,  the  chemist  determines  the 
composition  of  feed  in  terms  of  water,  ash,  protein,  ether 
extract  or  fat,  crude  fiber  and  nitrogen-free  extract,  the 
last  two  together  making  up  the  carbohydrates. 

251.  Water.  The  chemist  places  a  small  quantity  of 
the  finely  ground  feeding-stuff  in  a  small  dish  and  weighs 
it.  The  sample  is  then  placed  in  an  oven,  where  it  is  dried 
at  a  temperature  of  212°  Fahr.  for  several  hours,  or  until 
it  no  longer  loses  weight.  It  is  then  weighed  again,  and 
the  difference  between  the  two  weights  is  the  water  that 
the  food  contains.    The  balance  on  which  this  work  is 

*  Pennsylvania  Bulletin  No.  84 


COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDS  283 

done  is  so  delicate  that  a  thimbleful  of  corn  meal  can  be 
weighed  with  a  smaller  percentage  of  error  than  is  usual 
when  a  wagon  load  of  corn  is  weighed  on  good  wagon 
scales. 

All  food  materials,  no  matter  how  dry  they  may  appear, 
contain  a  considerable  amount  of  water.  The  grains 
usually  contain  about  10  per  cent  of  water.  Hay  con- 
tains 10  to  20  per  cent;  pasture  grasses  about  75  per  cent; 
green  corn  and  silage  about  80  per  cent. 

252.  Ash.  The  chemist  next  burns  the  sample  until 
the  charcoal  is  all  gone.  The  remainder  is  ash.  The  amount 
of  ash  in  different  feeds  is  variable.  Corn  contains  1.5 
per  cent;  wheat,  1.8  per  cent;  wheat  bran,  5.8  per  cent; 
timothy  hay,  4.4  per  cent;  clover  hay,  6.2  per  cent;  alfalfa 
hay,  7.4  per  cent. 

253.  Protein.  The  protein  is  not  determined  directly. 
In  order  to  find  the  amount  of  it,  the  percentage  of  nitro- 
gen is  found  and  this  is  multiplied  by  6.25,  because  it 
has  been  found  that  the  average  protein  substance  contains 
about  16  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  The  method  of  finding 
the  percentage  of  nitrogen  is  too  complicated  to  be  con- 
sidered here.  The  amount  of  protein  is  highest  in  legumes. 
It  is  more  abundant  in  seeds  than  in  the  stems  of  plants. 
Alfalfa  hay  contains  14  per  cent;  timothy,  6  per  cent; 
wheat,  12  per  cent;  wheat-straw,  3.4  per  cent;  peas,  20 
per  cent;  corn,  10  per  cent. 

254.  Ether  Extract  or  Fat.  The  dry  feed  is  treated 
with  ether,  which  dissolves  out  the  wax,  chlorophyll 
and  fat.  The  largest  amount  of  the  extract,  particularly 
in  grains,  is  fat.  It  is,  therefore,  commonly  spoken  of  as 
fat.  although  a  more  accurate  term  would  be  ether  extract* 


284 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Corn  is  very  high  in  fat,  containing  5  per  cent;  wheat 
contains  2  per  cent. 

255.  Crude  Fiber.  The  crude  fiber  is  found  by  boiling 
the  feed  first  in  a  weak  acid  and  then  in  a  weak  alkaU. 
These  dissolve  all  of  the  softer  substances  and  leave  the 
insoluble  crude  fiber  behind.  It  consists,  for  the  most 
part,  of  the  cell-walls  or  framework  of  the  plant.  The 
amount  of  crude  fiber  is  greatest  in  the  coarse  feeds. 
The  stalks  of  corn  contain  20  per  cent,  the  grain  only 
2.2  per  cent. 

256.  Nitrogen-Free  Extract.  What  is  left  of  the  organic 
matter  of  the  plant  after  taking  out  the  above  substances 
is  called  nitrogen-free  extract.  It  is  determined  by  sub- 
tracting the  ash,  protein,  crude  fiber  and  fat  from  the 
total  dry  matter.  It  contains  starch,  sugar  and  a  number 
of  other  substances.  The  crude  fiber  and  the  nitrogen- 
free  extract  together  make  up  the  carbohydrates. 

257.  Composition  of  Feeds  and  Products  Compared. 
Notice  the  similarity  in  composition  between  the  foods 
or  raw  materials  and  the  animal  body.  It  is  evident  that 
one  cannot  hope  to  secure  a  protein  product  without  using 
a  protein  feed. 

Raw  Materials — Foods 


Com 

Timothy  hay 
Alfalfa  hay. . 
Clover  hay  . 
Clover,  green 


Water 

Ash 

Digestible 
protein 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

10.6 

1.5 

7.9 

13.2 

4.4 

28 

8.4 

7.4 

11.0 

15.3 

6.2 

6.8 

70.8 

2.1 

2.9 

Digestible 

fat  plus 

carbohydrates 

divided  by 

2.25 

Per  cent 

34.0 
20.7 
18.8 
17.6 
1.3 


FUNCTIONS   OF  FOOD   MATERIALS 


285 


Finished  Products 


Well-fed  ox. . . 
Well-fed  sheep 
Well-fed  swine 
Fat  swine.  . .  . 

Hen 

Eggs 

Cow's  milk. . . 


Water 

Ash 

Protein 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

54  3 

4.8 

15.8 

53.7 

3.3 

14.8 

53.9 

2.7 

13.9 

42.0 

1.8 

11.0 

55.8 

3.8 

21.6 

65.7 

12.2 

11.4 

87.2 

0.7 

3.6 

Fat 


Per  cent 

7.1 
13.2 
22.5 
40.2 
17.0 
8.9 
3.7 


FUNCTIONS    OF    THE    DIFFERENT    FOOD    MATERIALS 

258.  Water.  Water  in  food  serves  the  same  purpose 
as  that  which  the  animal  drinks.  It  is,  therefore,  not 
considered  as  having  any  value.  A  feed  that  is  moist 
may  be  more  palatable  than  a  dry  feed.  Water  is  the  food 
that  all  animals  require  in  largest  quantities.  It  not 
only  serves  as  the  carrier  of  food  in  the  animal  body,  but 
makes  up  the  larger  part  of  the  body  itself.  The  great 
importance  of  an  abundance  of  good  water  for  all  animals 
is  not  always  sufficiently  considered. 

259.  Ash.  The  ash  is  chiefly  of  use  in  the  formation 
of  bone,  but  it  doubtless  has  other  important  functions. 
A  mixed  feed  usually  contains  sufficient  ash,  so  that  the 
ash  has  been  ignored  in  calculating  the  value  of  feeds. 
Possibly,  when  we  learn  more  about  it,  we  will  give  more 
attention  to  it. 

There  are  several  cases  in  which  the  deficiency  in  ash 
is  very  important.  The  cereals  in  general  and  Indian 
corn  in  particular  are  deficient  in  ash.  The  legumes  con- 
tain, high  percentages  of  ash.  Hogs  fed  on  corn  alone  are 
likely  to  be  very  weak-boned.    To  correct  the  shortage 


286  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

of  ash,  they  may  be  fed  Hme  or  wood-ashes,  tankage 
or  bone  meal.  If  fed  on  corn  and  alfalfa,  the  shortage  of 
ash  is  made  up.  Hens  always  require  more  lime  than  is 
contained  in  their  feeds.  The  striking  reason  for  this  is 
seen  when  we  compare  the  composition  of  eggs  and  corn. 
The  eggs  contain  12.2  per  cent  ash,  the  corn  only  1.5 
per  cent.  Hens  are,  therefore,  commonly  fed  cracked 
oyster  shells.  Possibly  one  reason  why  the  Kentucky 
horses  have  such  good  bones  and  feet  is  the  high  ash 
content  of  the  feed  that  they  get  in  the  blue-grass  pastures. 
It  is  very  probable  that  the  ash  food  of  colts  in  the  corn- 
belt  should  be  given  more  consideration. 

260.  Protein.  There  are  a  large  number  of  compounds 
that  are  classed  together  as  protein.  The  gluten  of  wheat, 
lean  meat,  white  of  egg,  the  curd  of  milk,  are  protein  com- 
pounds. All  the  protein  compounds  contain  nitrogen. 
They  are  not  all  of  equal  feeding  value. 

The  protein  compounds  make  the  basis  of  the  bones, 
muscles  and  other  tissues.  They  are  also  used,  to  a  limited 
extent,  as  fuel  to  keep  the  body  warm,  but  this  is  not 
their  important  function. 

261.  Fats.  The  fats  in  food  serve  the  same  purpose 
to  the  animal  as  do  the  carbodydrates.  Fat  is  more  effec- 
tive than  carbohydrate.  It  has  been  found  that  if  a  pound 
of  fat  is  burned  it  gives  2.25  times  as  much  energy  as  is 
furnished  by  burning  a  pound  of  carbohydrates.  We 
therefore  say  that  a  pound  of  fat  is  approximately  equiva- 
lent to  2.25  pounds  of  carbohydrates  as  food  for  a  seed 
or  as  food  for  animals. 

262.  Carbohydrates.  The  starch  and  sugar  compounds 
are  the   most   important   carbohydrates.     Crude   fiber   or 


DIGESTIBILITY   OF   FEEDS 


287 


cellulose  is  a  less  efficient  one.^  The  carbohydrates  form 
only  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  body,  —  less  than  1 
per  cent..  Their  chief  function  is  to  furnish  energy  for 
keeping  the  body  warm  and  for  movement.  They  are 
also  important  as  a  source  of  animal  fat.  The  animal  can 
change  the  carbohydrates  to  fat,  and  the  body  fat  can 
be  used  as  a  source  of  energy  when  the  food  does  not 
supply  enough.   The  fat  is  a  reserve  source  of  energy. 

DIGESTIBILITY   OF   FEEDS 


263.  Feeds  Differ  in  Digestibility.  No  feed  can  be  entirely 
digested.  A  part  of  the  food  material  is  never  taken  up 
by  the  body.  The  proportion  of  digestible  material  is 
quite  different  in  different  food  materials.  The  propor- 
tion also  varies  with  the  kind  of  animal  and  with  the 
particular  individual.  The  ruminants,  or  cud-chewing 
animals,  cattle,  sheep  and  goats,  all  digest  their  food 
about  equally  well.  Horses  digest  11  to  12  per  cent  less 
than   ruminants. 

Average  Digestibility  for  Ruminants 


Fat 


Wheat  bran 

Com 

Timothy  hay 
Clover  hay  . 
Alfalfa  hay. . 
Wheat  straw 


Crude 

Nitrogen- 

Protein 

fiber 

free 
extract 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

79 

22 

69 

76 

58 

93 

48 

52 

63 

62 

49 

69 

74 

43 

66 

11 

52 

38 

Per  cent 

68 
86 
57 
62 
39 
31 


^The  carbohydrates  contain  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  The  pro- 
portions of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  the  same  as  in  water  (HjO),  hence 
the  name.  That  is,  there  are  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  for  each  atom  of 
oxygen.  There  are  a  large  number  of  different  carbohydrate  compounds. 
The  composition  of  starch  is  GgHi206,  of  cane  sugar  Ci2H220n,  of  grape 
sugar  or  glucose  CqIIi2^6- 


288 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


It  will  be  seen  that  79  per  cent  of  the  protein  of  wheat 
bran  is  digested,  while  21  per  cent  passes  through  the 
animal  unused.  But  only  11  per  cent  of  the  protein  in 
wheat  straw  is  digested.  In  general,  the  grain  feeds  are 
much  more  digestible  than  roughage — hay,  straw,  etc. 

264.  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Feeds.  By  combining  the 
above  table  with  the  table  of  compositions,  we  can  get 
the  amount  of  digestible  material  in  each  food: 


Protein 

Crude 
fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fat 

Composition  of  corn. 

Per  cent 

10.3 
76.0 

7.8 

Per  cent 
2.2 

58.0 
1.2 

Per  cent 
70.4 
93.0 

65.5 

Per  cent 
5  0 

Digestibility  of  corn 

Digestible  nutrients  in  com., .  . 

86.0 
4.3 

Corn  contains  10.3  per  cent  of  protein,  of  which  76 
per  cent  is  digestible;  or  it  contains  7.8  per  cent  of  diges- 
tible protein.  Similarly,  it  contains  1.2  per  cent  of  diges- 
tible crude  fiber  and  65.5  per  cent  of  nitrogen-free  extract. 
These  are  added  to  give  the  amount  of  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates, or  66.7  per  cent.  This  is  the  manner  in  which 
Appendix  table  8  is  calculated. 

265.  Effect  of  Time  of  Harvesting  on  Digestibility. 
When  hay  ripens,  much  of  the  food  material  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  seeds.  These  seeds  are  so  small  and  hard 
that  they  are  not  digested  by  the  animal,  hence,  hay  that 
is  cut  when  ripe  is  not  very  digestible.  (Fig.  90.)  In 
the  case  of  corn,  the  seed  is  digestible,  hence  the  total 
product  averages  higher  in  digestibility  as  the  plant  ripens. 
The  total  product  is  also  much  more  per  acre.  Therefore, 
we  cut  hay  plants  when  green  and  grain  crops  when  ripe. 


MAINTENANCE   AND  PRODUCTIVE    VALUES  289 

MAINTENANCE  AND   PRODUCTIVE    VALUES 

The  animal  uses  the  energy  of  its  food  for  three  pur- 
poses: For  maintenance  of  Ufe,  for  external  work,  and 
for  fattening  or  the  production  of  eggs,  milk,  or  other 
product. 

266.  Maintenance.  Even  while  at  rest,  many  parts 
of  the  body  are  active.  To  maintain  this  activity,  requires 
a  supply  of  energy  in  the  feed.  If  feed  is  withheld,  the 
animal  will  use  the  substance  of  its  own  body  to  keep 
up  the  life  functions.  When  the  supply  in  the  body  is 
no  longer  available,  the  animal  will  die. 

267.  External  Work.  When  the  demands  for  main- 
tenance are  met,  the  animal  may  use  the  extra  energy 
for  carrying  loads.  The  energy  stored  in  the- body  may 
also  be  used  for  this  purpose,  but  if  this  is  done  the  animal 
gets  poor  in  flesh. 

268.  Production.  An  excess  of  food  above  the  main- 
tenance requirement  may  also  be  used  to  store  up  meat 
or  fat  in  the  body,  or  for  the  formation  of  wool,  milk  or 
eggs. 

269.  Energy  Lost  in  Digestion  and  in  Production. 
Formerly,  it  was  considered  that  the  maintenance  values 
of  the  feeds  were  in  proportion  to  the  total  digestible 
nutrients.  We  still  compare  foods  on  this  basis  in  com- 
puting balanced  rations,  because  we  do  not  have  any 
better  means  of  comparison  at  the  present  time. 

Armsby^  has  studied  a  few  feeds  in  order  to  determine 
how  much  of  the  energy  is  available  for  maintenance 
and  for  production.  For  these  investigations  he  constructed 

^Pennsylvania  Bulletin  No.  84 


290  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

an  apparatus  known  as  the  respiration  calorimeter.  There 
are  only  three  such  instruments  in  the  world,  and  this 
is  the  only  one  used  for  experiments  on  domestic  animals. 
The  apparatus  is  so  constructed  as  to  enable  the  operator 
to  keep  an  exact  debit  and  credit  account  with  the  animal. 
He  determines  the  weight,  chemical  composition  and 
energy  content  of  the  feed  given.  He  then  determines 
the  amount  of  matter  and  of  energy  carried  off  in  the 
visible  waste  products,  and  in  the  gases  carried  off  by 
the  lungs  and  skin  and  by  fermentation  in  the  digestive 
tract.  Finally,  the  apparatus  is  a  calorimeter, — ^i.  e.,  a 
heat  measurer, — ^by  means  of  which  the  amount  of  heat 
given  off  by  the  animal  is  determined.  Having  thus  ob- 
tained a  complete  record  of  the  income  and  outgo  from 
the  body,  it  is  easy  to  compute  whether  the  animal  has 
stored  up  any  of  the  matter  and  energy  of  the  feed,  or 
whether  he  has  been  living  in  part  on  his  own  tissues. 

In  this  manner,  Armsby  found  that  the  following 
amounts  of  the  energy  of  the  food  were  set  free  in  the 
animal,  or  were  digested: 

Timothy  hay     44  per  cent 

Com  meal    77  per  cent 

These  figures  represent  the  percentage  of  digestibility 
of  these  particular  samples  of  feed  with  the  particular 
animal  used.  With  different  lots  of  feed  or  a  different 
animal,  they  might  be  different. 

A  part  of  this  material  is  lost  in  digestion,  so  that  it  is 
not  all  available  for  maintenance.  The  percentages  of  the 
digested  materials  available  for  maintenance  were: 

Timothy  hay 63  per  cent 

Com  meal    .' .* 78  per  cent 


MAINTENANCE   AND  PRODUCTIVE    VALUES 


291 


Or  28  per  cent  (44  per  cent  of  63  per  cent)  of  the  original 
energy  value  of  timothy  hay  is  available  for  maintaining 
the  animal,  and  60  per  cent  of  the  energy  of  corn  is  thus 
available. 

When  the  animal  stores  up  the  energy  of  these  feeds, 
there  is  a  still  further  loss.  The  percentages  of  the  diges- 
tible material  that  could  be  stored  up  were: 

Timothy  hay 33  per  cent 

Com  meal    53  per  cent 

Or  15  per  cent  of  the  energy  of  timothy  was  available 
for  storing  up  in  the  body  and  41  per  cent  of  the  energy 
of  corn  was  thus  available. 

These  results  agree  with  common  experience,  that 
timothy  hay  is  fairly  good  for  maintaining  a  steer,  but  is 
very  unsatisfactory  for  fattening.  They  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows: 

Values  per  100  Pounds  Containing  15  Per  Cent  "Water 


Heat  of  combustion 

Heat  of  combustion  of  ma- 
terial digested 

Maintenance  value 

Productive  value  for  fatten- 
ing  : 


Corn  meal 


Therms  i 

170.9 

130.8 
102.0 

69.7 


Per  cent 

100 

77 
60 

41 


Timothy  hay 


Therms 

175.6 

77.7 
48.9 

25.9 


Per  cent 

100 

44 

28 

15 


270.  Comparison   of   Concentrates   and    Roughage.     It 

will  be  seen,  in  the  above  comparison,  that  the  losses  in 
each  step  are  much  greater  for  timothy  than  for  corn 
meal.    It  will  not  do  to  compare  the  values  of  these  two 

^  A  Therm  is  a  thousand  large  calories.  That  is  the  amount  of  heat 
necessary  to  raise  the  temperature  of  1,000  Kilograms  of  water  1*  Cen- 
tigrade. The  unit  here  need  not  be  considered,  as  only  the  comparative 
figures  or  percentages  are  important. 


292  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

feeds  on  the  basis  of  digestible  material.  This  would 
make  the  timothy  worth  58  per  cent  as  much  as  the  corn 
meal,  whereas  it  is  worth  only  48  per  cent  as  much  for 
maintenance,  and  37  per  cent  as  much  for  production. 

Clover  hay  contains  about  two-thirds  as  much  diges- 
tible material  as  oats,  but  the  clover  is  much  harder  to 
digest.  Zuntz  calculated  that  the  net  nutrients,  after 
allowing  for  the  amount  used  in  chewing  and  digestion, 
were  about  one-third  as  much  for  clover  hay  as  for  oats.^ 
Similar  results  have  been  obtained  by  other  investigators. 
(See  Appendix,  Table  9.) 

We  thus  see  that  it  is  not  safe  to  compare  hay  feeds 
with  grain  feeds  on  the  basis  of  digestible  nutrients.  It 
is  approximately  correct  to  compare  feeds  of  the  same 
class  on  this  basis.  Hay  may  be  compared  with  hay  and 
one  grain  with  another  without  very  great  errors. 

BALANCED   RATIONS 

271.  Food  Requirements  of  Different  Animals.  Animals 
must  be  fed  very  differently  for  different  kinds  of  work. 
The  kind  of  feed  that  is  adapted  to  producing  wool,  eggs, 
milk  or  muscular  work  is  not  the  kind  that  is  best  adapted 
to  fattening  an  animal  or  to  maintaining  it  when  not 
producing.  If  we  expect  a  product  that  contains  a  high 
percentage  of  protein,  as  milk  or  eggs,  we  must  feed  a 
protein  diet;  otherwise,  it  will  be  absolutely  impossible 
to  keep  up  the  production. 

Very  many  experiments  have  been  conducted  in  order 
to  determine  what  is  the  best  proportion  of  the  different 

J- Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  170,  p.  41. 


BALANCED  RATIONS  '         293 

nutrients,    and    how    much    of    each    is    required.     These 
experiments  have  been  summarized  in  feeding  standards. 

272.  Carbohydrate  Equivalent  of  Fat.  As  we  have 
previously  learned,  the  fats  and  carbohydrates  have  the 
same  function,  but  fat  is  2.25  times  as  effective  as  carbo- 
hydrates. One  hundred  pounds  of  corn  contains  66.7 
pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates  and  4.3  pounds  of  diges- 
tible fat.  This  is  equivalent  to  76.4  pounds  (66.7  +  4.3  X 
2.25)  of  carbohydrates.  This  is  the  manner  in  which  the 
carbohydrate  column  in  Appendix,  Table  8,  is  calculated. 

273.  Nutritive  Ratio.  One  hundred  pounds  of  corn 
contains  7.9  pounds  of  digestible  protein  and  the  equiva- 
lent of  76.4  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  or  it 
contains  one  pound  of  digestible  protein  for  each  9.7 
pounds  of  carbohydrates.  This  is  called  the  nutritive 
ratio. 

274.  Feeding  Standards.  The  commonly  accepted 
feeding  standards  are  given  in  Appendix,  Table  7.  As 
an  example,  if  we  look  up  the  standard  for  horses 
heavily  worked,  we  will  see  that  the  standard  ration  is 
26  pounds  of  dry  matter,  17.6  pounds  of  which  is  diges- 
tible, containing  2.5  pounds  of  protein  and  15.1  pounds 
of  carbohydrates.  This  gives  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:6. 
If  the  horse  weighs  over  1,000  pounds,  the  ration  would 
be  increased  proportionately. 

275.  Computing  Rations.^  To  illustrate  how  these 
tables  may  be  used,  we  will  examine  a  system  of  feeding 
cows,  which  is  followed  in  some  diary  sections.  Timothy 
hay  constitutes  the  greater  part  of  the  coarse  fodder.  Oats 
are  about  the  only  grain  grown.    Corn  is  purchased  and 

i  Adapted  from  Cornell  Bulletin  No.  154,  by  J.  L.  Stone 


294 


ELEMENTS  OF   AGRICULTURE 


ground  with  the  oats,  in  about  equal  weights,  to  make 
''chop,"  which  is  fed  with  the  hay.  The  cows  will  not 
vary  greatly  from  1,000  pounds  live  weight.  While  these 
cows  are  in  full  flow  of  milk  in  the  spring  before  pasture 
is  ready,  they  are  fed  about  20  pounds  of  hay  and  8  pounds 
of  chop  per  day.  Turning  to  the  table,  we  find  that  20 
pounds  of  hay,  4  pounds  of  oats  and  4  pounds  of  corn 
contain  digestible  nutrients  as  follows: 


Dry 
matter 

Protein 

C.  H.  and 

fat 

Total 

Nutritive 
ratio 

20  pounds  hay 

4  pounds  oats 

4  pounds  com  .... 

17.36 
3.56 
3.56 

.560 
.368 
.316 

9.320 
2.272 
3.056 

9.880 
2.640 
3.372 

Total 

24.48 
24.00 

1.244 
2.5 

14.648 
13.4 

15.892 
15.9 

1:11.8 

Wolff's  Standard. .  . 

1:  5.4 

Upon  comparison  of  the  nutrients  furnished  by  this 
ration  with  Wolff's  standard,  as  given  in  the  table,  it  is 
discovered  that,  while  the  dry  matter  and  total  nutrients 
are  not  far  out  of  the  way,  the  protein  is  much  too  small, 
the  carbohydrates  and  fat  are  somewhat  too  great,  while 
the  nutritive  ratio  is  far  too  wide. 

This  result  might  readily  have  been  foreseen  had  we 
paused  a  moment  to  note  the  nutritive  ration  of  each  of 
the  three  foods  entering  into  the  ration.  They  are,  timothy 
hay,  1  :  16.6;  oats  1  :  6.2;  corn,  1  :  9.7.  Neither  of  them 
is  as  narrow  as  the  standard,  and  it  is  impossible  to  com- 
bine them  into  a  ration  that  is  approximately  balanced. 
As  corn  is  a  purchased  product,  the  natural  suggestion 
is  that  the  corn  should  be  replaced  by  some  food  having 
a  high  proportion  of  protein,  or,  in  other  words,  a  very 


BALANCED  RATIONS 


295 


narrow  nutritive  ratio.  Consulting  the  table,  it  is  found 
that  among  such  are  linseed  meal,  cottonseed  meal,  gluten 
feed,  malt  sprouts,  buckwheat  middhngs,  etc.  For  the 
northeastern  states,  buckwheat  middhngs  is  usually- 
reasonable  in  price.  It  is  suggested  to  substitute  it  for 
corn  in  the  ration.  Again,  taking  the  figures  from  the 
table,  we  have: 


Dry 
matter 

Protein 

C.  H.  and 
fat 

Total 

20  pounds  timothy  hay 

4  pounds  oats 

17.36 

3.56 

3.49 

24.41 

.560 
.368 

.880 

1.808 

9.320 
2.272 

1.824 

9.880 
2.640 

4  pounds  buckwheat  mid- 
dhngs   

2.704 

Total  . 

13.416 

15.224 

Nutritive  ratio,  1:7.4 


While  this  ration  is  much  improved  over  the  previous 
one  and  will  produce  a  more  abundant  flow  of  milk,  it 
is  still  too  wide  to  produce  the  best  results.  If  the  timothy 
hay  is  reduced  two  pounds,  and  two  pounds  of  cotton- 
seed meal  put  in  its  place,  we  get: 


Dry 
matter 

Protein 

C.  H.  and 
fat 

Total 

18  pounds  timothy  hay 

4  pounds  oats  . 

15.62 
3.56 

3  49 
1.84 

24.51 

.504 

.368 

.880 
.744 

2.496 

8.388 
2.272 

1.824 

.888 

8.892 
2.640 

4  pounds  buckwheat  mid- 
dhngs   

2.704 

2  pounds  cottonseed  meal. .  . 

1.632 

Total 

13.372 

15.868 

I^utritive  ratio,  1:5.4 


296  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

This  ration  corresponds  very  closely  to  the  standard, 
and,  while  the  purchase  of  the  cottonseed  meal  will  add 
somewhat  to  the  expense,  still  it  is  the  experience  of  care- 
ful feeders  that  the  increased  production  will  pay. 

The  same  result  may  be  obtained  by  using  other  feed- 
ing stuffs  having  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio.  The  question 
is  hkely  to  be  raised,  which  of  the  various  feeding-stuffs 
offered  in  the  market  may  be  used  most  economically 
in  supplementing  the  home-grown  foods  to  produce  a 
balanced  ration?  This  question  is  best  answered  by  for- 
mulating properly  balanced  rations  containing  each  of  the 
foods  under  consideration;  and,  by  assigning  the  actual 
market  value  per  pound  to  each  of  the  constituents  of 
the  ration,  its  cost  is  readily  ascertanied  and  the  cheapest 
may  be  selected. 

276.  Another  Method  of  Computing  Rations.  The 
total  amounts  of  nutrients  required  are  sometimes  used 
instead  of  the  above  method.  Cows  require  about  24 
pounds  of  dry  matter  per  day  per  1,000  pounds  of  Uve 
weight.  At  least  16  pounds  of  this  should  be  digestible, 
and  2  to  2.5  pounds  should  be  digestible  protein.  This 
is  an  easier  method  of  calculating  but  gives  practically 
the  same  results.  It  will  be  seen  that  only  the  last  one 
of  the  three  calculated  rations  in  the  preceding  section 
meets  this  standard. 

277.  Cautions  in  Using  Balanced  Rations.  The  nutritive 
ratio  may  vary  somewhat  from  the  standard  without 
serious  results.  Cows  have  produced  good  results  on  feeds 
with  a  ratio  as  wide  as  1  :  8,  but  most  successful  dairy- 
men use  a  ration  with  more  protein.^    One  pound  of  pro- 

1  Virginia  Bulletin  No.  169. 


BALANCED  RATIONS  297 

tein  for  6  to  7  pounds  of  carbohydrates  is  usually 
better. 

It  is  possible  to  prepare  a  ration  that  will  fit  the  stan- 
dard and  yet  not  be  satisfactory.  The  standards  are  guides 
but  not  laws.  They  do  not  do  away  with  skill  in  feeding, 
but  will  help  in  deciding  on  the  feeds.  One  might  feed 
cows  all  cottonseed  meal  for  the  grain  ration,  but  the 
cows  would  not  do  well.  Cottonseed  meal  is  constipating 
in  effect.  Wheat  bran  and  oil  meal  are  laxative.  One  can 
prepare  a  ration  for  horses  including  clover  hay,  but 
clover  is  not  the  best  for  horses.  This  is  why  it  sells  for  less 
than  timothy.    It  is  better  than  timothy  for  feeding  cows. 

Not  all  cows  of  the  same  size  will  need  the  same  amount 
of  feed.  Some  may  be  harder  to  keep  and  some  may  be 
giving  larger  quantities  of  milk.  It  is  well  to  balance 
the  ration  and  then  adapt  it  to  the  different  animals  by 
feeding  larger  or  smaller  quantities. 

278.  Comfort  of  Animals.  Armsby  has  found  that  a 
steer  produces  30  to  50  per  cent  more  heat  when  standing 
up  than  when  lying  down.  This  heat,  of  course,  comes 
from  burning  up  of  food.  Evidently  it  will  pay  to  pro- 
vide comfortable  quarters  and  a  good  bed  for  animals. 
This  does  not  mean  that  the  barn  should  be  warm.  Fat- 
tening animals  produce  so  much  heat  in  digestion  that 
they  are  more  comfortable  in  cool  stables.  All  feeding 
experiments  with  steers  have  shown  cool,  dry  stables  to 
be  best.  Cows  need  warmer  quarters,  as  they  are  not 
fattening,  and  are  not  using  so  much  carbohydrates. 
Regularity  in  feeding  is  also  of  great  importance. 

279.  Relation  of  the  Individuality  of  the  Animal  to 
Profits.    Some  animals  will  not  produce  profitable  results, 


298  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

no  matter  how  they  are  fed.  It  is  necessary  to  have  a 
good  animal,  well  fed,  for  good  returns.  Either  condition 
without  the  other  will  result  in  a  financial  loss. 

280.  Condimental  Foods.  Numerous  condimental  stock 
foods  are  advertised.  These  are  guaranteed  to  make  hens 
lay,  cows  give  milk,  or  pigs  get  fat.  The  basis  of  nearly 
all  of  these  is  some  common  feed.  Other  ingredients  are 
salt,  fenugreek,  gentian,  ginger,  sulfates  of  iron,  and  soda, 
pepper,  sulfur,  charcoal,  etc.  Substances  that  counteract 
each  other  are  sometimes  included. 

Some  of  these  substances  have  a  tonic  effect  and  may 
at  times  be  needed,  but  it  is  rarely  desirable  for  animals 
or  men  to  take  tonics  all  the  time.  If  we  desire  to  feed 
any  of  these,  they  can  be  purchased  at  a  drug  store  and 
at  a  very  small  fraction  of  the  cost  in  patent  foods. 

Numerous  feeding  experiments  have  failed  to  show 
the  value  of  these  feeds.  If  one  desires  to  use  them,  he 
had  best  get  a  prescription  from  a  veterinarian,  or  write 
to  the  State  Experiment  Station,  and  save  his  money 
for  some  useful  purpose.  . 

QUESTIONS   AND   PROBLEMS 

1.  Why  does  a  person  need  more  clothing  while  sleeping  than 
while  sitting? 

2.  How  much  protein  would  there  be  in  the  milk  of  a  cow  that 
gives  30  pounds  per  day?  What  other  needs  would  the  cow  have  for 
protein?    About  how  much  would,  therefore,  be  required  per  day? 

3.  What  would  be  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  following  ration? 
(See  Appendix,  Table  8.) 

Com  silage 40  pounds 

Clover  hay : 10  pounds 

Com  meal 3  pounds 

Wheat  bran 3  pounds 

Oil  meal  (old  process)   ,,.,,-, 1  pound 


COLLATERAL  READING  299 

How  many  pounds  of  dry  matter  would  it  contain?  How  many  pounds 
of  digestible  material?  Would  it  be  a  good  ration?  Will  it  satisfy 
the  conditions  given  in  paragraph  276? 

4.  A  man  has  corn  stalks,  clover  hay  and  com.  He  can  buy  wheat 
bran  at  $22  per  ton,  gluten  meal  at  $20,  and  oil  meal  at  $30.  Which 
ones  shall  he  buy  in  order  to  make  a  balanced  ration  for  cows?  What 
will  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  feed  be?  Will  this  ration  satisfy  the 
conditions  in  paragraph  276? 

5.  Prepare  a  ration  for  fattening  steers  that  weigh  1,200  pounds 
each,  using  alfalfa  and  com. 

6.  Prepare  a  ration  for  a  farm  horse  at  moderate  work,  using 
timothy  hay,  corn  and  oats. 

7.  Prepare  a  similar  ration  for  a  farm  horse  while  at  rest. 

8.  How  much  of  each  feed  will  it  take  for  a  year  for  a  team  of 
horses  each  weighing  1,500  pounds,  supposing  that  the  team  works 
half  of  the  time? 

9.  What  are  the  common  feeds  of  your  region?  For  what  purpose 
are  the  animals  fed?   Prepare  rations  for  them. 

10.  Find  out  exactly  what  some  persons  are  feeding.  Find  the 
nutritive  ratio,  total  dry  matter  and  digestible  matter  in  the  ration, 
and  see  whether  it  agrees  with  the  standards.  If  not,  how  may  it  be 
improved  ? 

COLLATERAL   READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.: 

22,  The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals. 
170.  Principles  of  Horse-Feeding. 
186.  Rations  for  Laying  Hens,  pp.  23-27. 
202.  Home-Grown  Protein  for  Dairy  Cows,  pp.  22-24. 
222.  Weight  Per  Quart  of  Feeds,  pp.  17,  18. 

Grain  Rations,  pp.  18,  19. 

Horse  Feeding,  pp.  17-24. 

Silage  for  Cows,  pp.  31,  32. 
225.  Mineral  Matter  for  Chickens,  pp.  26,  27. 
233.  Condimental  Feeds,  pp.  21,  22. 

Methods  of  Feeding  Skimmed  Milk  to  Calves,  pp.  22-25 

Animal  Food  for  Ducklings,  pp.  25,  26. 
251.  Cheap  Dairy  Rations,  pp.  26-30. 

Cottonseed  Meal  for  Hogs,  pp.  30-33. 


300  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

262.  Beet  Molasses  and  Pulp,  pp.  19-23. 

Feed  Lots,  pp.  23-25. 
276.  Tankage  and  Bone  Meal  for  Hogs,  pp.  21-24. 

Grinding  Corn  for  Hogs,  p.  25. 
305.  Laxative  Properties  of  Wheat  Bran,  pp.  16,  17. 

Emmer  as  Feed,  pp.  17-19. 

Roots  and  Cabbages  for  Stock  Food,  pp.  19-24. 
316.  Horse-Feeding  Tests,  pp.  22-30. 

Supplements  to  Com  for  Hogs — Tankage  for  Hogs,  pp 
25-30. 
320.  Protein  Content  for  Forage  Crops,  pp.  13-17. 
329.  Importance  of  Mineral  Matter  in  Feeds,  pp.  22-26. 
346.  The  Computations  of  Rations  for  Farm  Animals  by  the 
Use  of  Energy  Values 

Human  Foods. 

74.  Milk  as  Food. 

85.  Fish  as  Food. 

93.  Sugar  as  Fooa. 
121.  Legumes  as  Food. 
128.  Eggs  and  Their  Uses  as  Food. 

142.  Principles  of  Nutrition  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Food. 
182.  Poultry  as  Food. 
249.  Cereal  Breakfast  Foods. 
298.  The  Food  Value  of  Corn  and  Corn  Products. 
281.  Corn  as  Food  for  Man,  pp.  18-22. 

Feeds  and  Feeding,  by  W.  A.  Henry. 

The  Feeding  of  Animals,  by  W.  H.  Jordan. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  56-119, 


CHAPTER   XI 
THE   HORSE 

281.  Substitution  of  Horse  Power  for  Man  Power.    In 

1830,  it  required  an  average  of  three  hours  of  time  for 
each  bushel  of  wheat  grown;  in  1896  it  required  ten  min- 
utes. In  1850  it  took  four  and  one-half  hours  to  grow, 
harvest  and  shell  a  bushel  of  corn;  in  1899,  it  required 
forty-one  minutes.^  This  saving  of  time  has  been  due  to 
the  substitution  of  machinery  drawn  by  horses  for  human 
labor.  According  to  the  last  census  (1900),  we  had  twenty- 
one  million  horses  in  the  United  States,  or  one  horse 
to  each  four  persons.  In  Great  Britain  there  is  one 
horse  to  twenty-six  persons;  in  France,  one  to  ten;  in 
Germany,  one  to  thirteen. 

In  America,  we  have  gone  farthest  in  the  substitution 
of  brute  force  for  human  energy.  Human  labor  is  the 
most  expensive  of  all  labor,  even  if  the  person  be  a  slave. 
One  horse,  properly  directed  can  do  the  work  of  ten  men, 
while  his  ''board  and  room"  on  the  farm  cost  about  half 
as  much  as  that  of  one  man.  The  farm  boy  who  drives 
a  good  four-horse  team  to  a  gang-plow  is  doing  as  much 
work  as  if  the  horses  were  replaced  by  forty  men.  In  the 
West,  the  farmer  is  no  longer  content  to  use  a  single 
team  in  his  farm  operations  when  it  is  possible  to  use 
larger  numbers.  The  four-horse  gang-plow  and  four- 
horse  harrow  have  rapidly  replaced  the  two-horse  machines. 

*  Yearbook  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1897,  page  600 

(301) 


302  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

There  are  many  parts  of  the  country  in  which  similar 
methods  can  be  used.  In  this  way  one  man  can  do  the 
work  that  would  require  many  men  under  European 
conditions.  Because  we  make  our  labor  count  for  so  much, 
we  are  able  to  make  farming  an  attractive  business,  rather 
than  a  peasant's  drudgery. 

We  have  wasted  our  lumber,  our  coal,  our  soil  fer- 
tility; but,  we  have  used  human  energy  more  economi- 
cally than  it  has  ever  been  used  before.  The  older  nations 
are  saving  of  everything  but  human  time.  As  a  nation, 
we  are  extremely  saving  of  time,  but  wasteful  of  every- 
thing else.  Perhaps  each  hemisphere  should  learn  econ- 
omy from  the  other. 

The  extensive  use  of  horses  has  had  a  great  influence 
on  our  national  character  and  history.  The  boy  who  trains 
a  colt  gets  a  lot  of  training  himself.  It  makes  a  man  expand 
as  he  learns  to  manage  a  spirited  horse.  The  less  intelli- 
gent races  cannot  manage  horses  well.  They  prefer  the 
thick-skinned,   stubborn   ass. 

282.  Types  of  Horses.  There  are  five  chief  purposes 
for  which  horses  are  raised:  (1)  For  speed,  as  trotters 
and  runners;  (2)  for  sport  or  for  fashion;  (3)  for  family 
driving;  (4)  for  farm  purposes;  (5)  for  draft  purposes, 
usually  in  cities. 

The  first  three  classes  are  usually  of  much  the  same 
general  type.  They  are  smaller  and  more  active  than 
draft  horses.  There  are  no  breeds  of  horses  that  are  especi- 
ally adapted  for  farm  use.  The  best  draft  horses  for  city 
ustj  are  usually  too  heavy  for  general  farm  purposes. 
The  horses  of  the  other  classes  are  usually  too  light. 

Too   little   attention   has   been   given  to   farm   horses. 


HORSES 


303 


Very  often  the  chief  reason  why  a  horse  is  a  farm  horse 
is  because  he  is  not  one  that  would  bring  a  good  price  in 
the  city.  As  labor  becomes  more  expensive,  we  can  afford 
to  give  more  attention  to  the  character  of  the  farm  horses. 
283.  Draft  Horses  and  Horses  for  Speed.  There  are 
many  contrasts  between  draft  horses  and  those  that  are 
kept  for  speed.  Many  of  these  characters  are  contra- 
dictory, so  that  we  can  never  hope  to  have  horses  that 
are  best  for  both  speed  and  draft  purposes.  The  following 
table  shows  some  of  the  contrasts: 


Trotter  or  roadster 
General  appearance:    high,  lithe, 

active. 
Head  and  neck  long,  graceful,  thin, 

light,  little  crest. 
Large  nostrils. 
Eyes  full,  bright,  intelligent. 
Long  sloping  shoulders. 
Front  feet  near  together. 
Body  deep  up  and  down. 
Flank  high. 

Legs  rather  long. 

Hoofs  smooth,  polished,  no  creases; 

not  too  flat. 
Fetlock  joint  not  too  short  nor  too 

erect. 


Draft  Horse 
Low,  massive,  plump. 

Short,  thick,  broad  neck,  with  a 

crest. 
Same. 
Same. 

More  upright. 
Far  apart. 

Roimd,  with  well-arched  ribs. 
Not    so  high;    should    not    be 

"wasp- waisted . " 
Not  so  long;  not  over  half  height. 
Same,  except  flatter  and  larger. 

May  be  shorter  and  more  erect. 


The  hind  legs  of  a  greyhound  and  jack-rabbit  have 
powerful  muscles.  The  front  legs  are  relatively  weak. 
This  is  the  case  in  all  quadrupeds  that  are  noted  for  speed. 
It  has  been  said  that  the  chief  use  of  the  trotter's  front 
feet  is  to  get  out  of  the  way  of  the  hind  ones.  About  all 
that  they  have  to  do  is  to  support  the  front  part  of  the 
body.    An  animal  that  is  desired  for  speed  needs  good 


304 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


lungs,  good  digestive  organs  and  organs  of  circulation, 
with  powerful  hind  legs  and  other  parts  developed  as  they 
are  necessary  to  support  these  needs.  The  trotter  does 
not  want  to  be  loaded  with  extra  head  and  neck,  nor 
size  of  front  quarters.    He  needs  large  nostrils,  because 


Fig.  146.     The  speed  type.   Dan  Patch,  l:55i 

they  must  allow  the  passage  of  abundant  air.  His  shoul- 
ders need  to  be  sloping,  flank  high,  legs  rather  long,  all 
for  the  same  reason — ^to  give  freedom  for  long  steps. 
The  front  feet  need  to  be  near  together  to  correspond 
with  the  body  and  to  be  out  of  the  way  of  the  hind  feet. 
The  body  should  be  deep  up  and  down  to  make  room 
for  the  powerful  lungs.  If  the  fetlock  joint  is  too  short 
and  erect,  the  jar  when  the  foot  strikes  the  ground  is  too 


HORSES 


305 


great;  the  longer,  less  erect  one  gives  chance  for  more 
spring. 

The  whole  conformation  of  the  typical  draft  horse  is 
heavier.    The  greyhound  build  gives  way  to  the  round 


Fig.  147.     The  draft  type.  Baron's  Pride,  a  noted  Clydesdale 

body,  shorter  legs  with  powerful  but  slower-moving 
muscles.  He  does  not  need  a  body  adapted  to  the  long 
steps  of  the  trotter.  While  his  hind  legs  are  the  stronger, 
yet  he  uses  his  front  legs  very  much  in  pulhng,  therefore 
the  entire  front  quarters  have  a  good  development.  The 
broad  breast  puts  the  front  feet  far  apart. 

Horses    weighing    1,500   to    1,600    pounds    are    classed 
as  Hght  draft  horses.    Those  weighing  1,600  to  1,700  are 


306  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

medium  weight.  Those  weighing  over  1,700  pounds  are 
heavy  draft  horses.  The  heavier  horses  bring  the  higher 
prices. 

When  a  team  cannot  pull  a  load,  it  is  the  feet  that 
give  way.  They  shp  because  there  is  not  friction  enough 
to  hold  them.  This  explains  why  a  horse  can  pull  more 
when  a  man  is  on  his  back.  It  gives  him  more  weight 
so  that  he  can  stick  to  the  ground.  On  dirt  roads,  horses 
"dig  their  toes  in,"  so  as  to  help  in  getting  a  foothold. 
On  pavements  they  cannot  do  this,  but  the  sharp  shoes 
help.  This  is  one  reason  why  such  heavy  draft  horses 
are  desired  in  cities.  One  way  to  make  a  horse  heavier 
is  to  have  the  whiffletree  low  down,  so  that  the  tugs  pull 
down  on  the  horse's  back  and  hold  him  to  the  ground. 
If  the  doubletree  is  put  under  the  wagon  tongue,  the 
team  can  pull  a  heavier  load.  In  his  book  on  'The  Horse," 
Professor  Roberts  tells  of  an  experiment  with  a  1,500- 
pound  horse  hitched  to  a  post  and  puUing  on  a  dynamom- 
eter (a  large  spring  balance).  When  the  whiffletree 
was  fastened  six  inches  from  the  ground,  the  horse  pulled 
2,310  pounds;  when  two  feet  from  the  ground,  1,980 
pounds;  when  three  feet,  1,732  pounds.  This  is  one  reason 
why  horses  draw  a  walking  plow  easier  when  the  tugs 
are  rather  short,  but  here  there  is  another  reason  in  that 
the  short  tugs  lessen  the  friction  on  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow. 

With  a  driving  horse,  the  load  is  Hght,  so  the  whiffle- 
tree should  be  high.  Then,  in  driving,  we  do  not  want 
any  additional  weight  on  the  horse's  feet,  because  rapid 
driving  is  very  hard  on  the  feet  and  legs.  Perhaps  some 
of  you  have  seen  hansom  cabs  in  cities.    These  are  two- 


HORSES  307 

wheeled  and  the  driver  sits  at  the  back,  so  that  the  thills 
pull  up  on  the  horse  and  support  part  of  his  weight.  They 
are  awkward-looking  vehicles,  but  they  save  the  horse's 
feet  very  much  when  driving  on  hard  pavements. 

Appearance  is  the  chief  point  in  coach  horses,  and 
such  horses  are  larger  and  plumper  than  roadsters.  Coach 
horses  have  high  knee  action  and  travel  up  and  down 
rather  than  reaching  out,  as  do  trotters. 

284.  Breeds  of  Horses.  The  leading  breeds  of  horses 
in  America  are  as  follows: 

Draft  Breeds —  Carriage  and  Coach  Horses — 

Percherons,  from  France.  Hackneys,  from  England. 

Clydesdales,  from  Scotland       '         French  coach 
Belgian,  from  Belgium.  Grerman  coach. 

English  Shire,  from  England 
Suffolk  Punch  from  England. 

Roadster  Breeds — 

American  trotter,  developed  in  America. 

American  saddle  horse,  developed  in  America, — mostly 

in  Kentucky  and  Virginia. 
English  Thoroughbred,  developed  in  England. 

Something  of  the  relative  popularity  of  the  different 
breeds  is  indicated  by  the  number  of  stalhons  in  Wis- 
consin in  1908.  There  were  267  either  pure  blood  or 
grade  Percherons;  43  Clydesdales;  28  Belgians;  26  Shire; 
115  Trotters;  73  of  all  other  known  breeds.^ 

The  Percheron  is  seen  to  be  the  favorite  draft  breed. 
This  breed  is  considered  to  be  superior  to  other  draft 
breeds  in  bone  and  feet,  and  in  style  and  finish.  They 
are  said  to  be  more  active  and  more  intelligent  than  the 

i  Wisconsin  Bulletin  No.  1 58 


308  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

other  draft  breeds.  Their  color  is  quite  variable.  Black 
and  mottled  gray  seem  to  be  the  most  popular. 

The  Clydesdales  are  said  to  lack  in  circumference  of 
body  and  in  weight.  They  are  also  said  to  have  poorer 
constitutions.  They  have  a  heavy  growth  of  hair  on  the 
fetlocks.  This  distinguishes  them  from  all  other  breeds 
except  the  Shire.  It  is  also  one  of  the  objections  to  the 
breed.  Drivers  do  not  like  this  mass  of  hair,  which  gets 
clogged  with  mud  on  our  poor  roads.  The  English  Shires 
are  nearly  like  the  Clydesdales.  They  might  be  called 
Enghsh  Clydesdales. 

The  Belgians  and  Clydesdales  have  not  been  so  popular 
In  America  as  the  Percherons.  The  chief  reason  is  probably 
that  the  latter  breed  is  more  active. 

The  Hackneys  and  coach  horses  are  not  much  raised 
in  America,  although  they  seem  to  be  gaining  ground. 
Our  coach  horses  are  usually  large  grades  that  contain 
considerable  of  the  trotting  blood. 

The  American  trotter  and  American  saddler  are  the 
distinctly  American  productions.  They  are  the  best  of 
their  kind  in  the  world.  From  selected  members  of  these 
breeds,  the  Department  of  Agriculture  is  now  trying  to 
develop  a  breed  of  American  carriage  horses.  The  Indian 
pony  and  bronco  are  also  distinctly  American.  They 
have  many  valuable  characteristics,  but  they  seem  destined 
to  extinction. 

285.  How  to  Tell  the  Age  of  a  Horse.  One  of  the  first 
questions  that  is  always  asked  when  one  wishes  to  buy 
a  horse  is  the  age.  This  is  because  the  age  is  so  important 
in  determining  the  value.  Every  farmer  should  be  able 
to  estimate  the  age  of  a  horse. 


HORSES 


309 


The  teeth  usually  furnish  a  fairly  accurate  indication 
of  the  age  until  a  horse  is  ten  years  old.  Horses  have  two 
sets  of  teeth,  the  first  or  temporary  set  and  the  second 
or  permanent  set,  similar  to  the  two  sets  in  human  beings. 
There  are  three  pairs  of  nippers  or  front  teeth  on  each 
jaw.  These  are  the  ones  that  indicate  the  age.  The  new 
teeth  have  deep  cups  or  indentations  in  their  centers. 
As  the  teeth  are  used,  they  wear  down  and  the  cups  disap- 
pear. It  takes  about  three  years  for  a  cup  to  disappear 
from  the  nippers  of  the  permanent  set  of  teeth  on  the 
lower  jaw,  and  about  twice  as  long  on  the  upper  jaw. 

ColL — A  colt  gets  its  center  nippers  at  about  one  week 
of  age.  By  the  time  it  is  a  month  old,  it 
has  all  three  pairs.  The  cups  in  these 
teeth  gradually  disappear  and  are  usu- 
ally gone  at  about  two  years.  (Fig. 
148.)  At  about  two  years  and  nine 
months,  the  center   pair  of   permanent 

teeth  appear.    Up  to 

this  time,  the  general 

appearance   of    the    colt   is    usually    as 

accurate    an    indication   of    its    age   as 

are  the  teeth. 

Three    Years. — At    three    years,    the 

permanent     pair      of 

center  nippers  will  be 
up  and  ready  for  use.  They  will  have 
deep  cups,  and  are  much  larger  than  the 
temporary  teeth.  If  the  colt  is  a  male, 
two  small  tusks  will  appear  at  about  this  Fig.  iso. 

The  lo  wer  nippers  at 

time.  Mares  do  not  have  tusks  (Fig.  149).        four  years  of  age 


Fig.  148. 

The  lower  nippers  of  a 

colt  two  years  old 


Fig.  149. 

The  lower  nippers  at 

three  years  of  age 


310 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


/ 

Fig.  151. 

Side  view  at  four 

years  of  age 


Fia.  152. 

Lower  nippers  at  five 

years 


Four  Years. — At  four  years,  the  second 
pair  of  permanent  nippers  are  just  ready 
for  use,  and  the  cups  in  the  center  pair 
are  about  one-third  gone.    (Fig.  150.) 

Five  Years. — At  five  years,  the  third 
pair  of  nippers  are  present  and  just  meet. 
The  cups  of  the  center 
pair  are  about  two-thirds  gone.  (Fig. 
152.) 

Six  Years. — The  cups  in  the  center 
pair  have  disappeared,  or  nearly  so. 
Those  in  the  second  pair  are  about  two- 
thirds  gone.  The  third  pair  are  up  and 
in  full  use. 

Seven  Years. —  At  seven  years,  the 
cups  are  gone  from  the  second  pair  of 
nippers.  There  is  then  a  notch  in  the 
upper  tooth  where  it  overlaps  the  lower 
one.    (Fig.  156.) 

Eight  Years. —  At  eight  years,  the 
cups  are  gone  from  all  the  nippers  of 
the  lower  jaw.  We  then  look  at  the 
nippers  of  the  upper  jaw.  The  cups  will 
then  be  present  in  the  center  pair,  but 
will  not  be  deep.    (Fig.  157.) 

Nine  Years. —  The  cups  in  the  cen- 
ter pair  of  nippers  of  the  upper  jaw 
have  disappeared,  but  they  are  still 
present  in  the  second  pair,  and  fairly 
deep  in  the  third  pair. 

Fig.  155.  m         ^r  mi 

ade  view  at  six  yeans  Ten  Years. — The  cups  are  gone  from. 


Fig.  153. 
Side  view  at  five  years 


Fig.  154. 

Lower  nippers  at  six 

years 


HORSES 


311 


the  second  pair  on  the  upper  jaw,  but  are  still  present  in 
the  third  pair. 

Old   Horses. — The  cups  in  the  teeth  usually  all  disap- 
pear at  about  eleven  years.    After  this, 
the  shape  and  direction  of  the  teeth  give 
some  indication  of  age.   Notice  the  angles 
at  which  the  teeth  meet  in  Figs.   151, 
153,  156  and  159.  The  shapes  of  the  end 
of  the  teeth  also  change.    Compare  Figs. 
148,    154,  157,   and    158.    In   very   old 
horses,  white  hairs  usually  appear  around 
the  nose,  eyes  and  elsewhere.   The  back- 
bone is  likely  to  be  curved  downward, 
and  the   animal  does 
not  stand  squarely  on 
its  legs.    The  age  of  a 
horse  that  is  over  twelve  is  usually  less 
important     than    the    condition.      The 
vigor   and     activity  are    then  of    more 
importance  than  the  years. 

Irregularities  in  Teeth. — Some  horses 
do  not  wear  their  teeth  as  fast  as  others, 
so  that  they  may  have  an  irregular 
mouth.  Horses  that  have  dense,  hard 
bones  and  hoofs  sometimes  appear 
younger  than  they  are. 

286.  Care  of  Horses.  There  is  space 
here  to  call  attention  to  only  a  few 
points  that  may  be  of  use  on  the  farm.  A  fundamental 
principle  that  is  often  forgotten  when  feeding  horses  is 
that   the    horse's   stomach   is    small, — unlike    that    of  a 


Fig.  157. 

Lower  nippers  at 

eight  years 


Fig.  158. 

Lower  nippers  of  an 

old  horse 


Fig.  159. 

Side  view  of  nippers  of 

an  old  horse 


312  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

COW  or  sheep.  The  horse  cannot  use  as  much  bulky 
food  as  a  cow.  Farm  horses  are  quite  commonly  fed  too 
much  hay,  particularly  if  they  are  used  on  the  road.  The 
driving  horse  should  not  have  so  much  hay  as  is  fed  to 
the  farm  team.  When  teams  are  regularly  working,  it  is 
best  to  feed  them  only  about  one-fourth  of  the  day's 
ration  in  the  morning  and  one-fourth  at  noon,  and  feed 
half  the  ration  at  night,  when  they  have  time  to  eat  and 
digest  it.  If  a  horse  is  not  warm,  it  is  better  to  water 
before  feeding.  The  water  then  passes  on  to  the  intestines 
and  makes  room  for  the  feed  in  the  stomach.  If  a  horse 
is  very  warm,  it  should  not  be  watered  or  fed  until  it  cools 
off. 

Dusty  Hay  is  one  of  the  worst  things  for  horses.  It 
is  the  chief  cause  of  heaves.  Clover  is  much  worse  than 
timothy  in  this  respect.  Timothy  is  always  to  be  preferred 
for  horses,  while  clover  is  better  for  cows  or  sheep.  If  dusty 
hay  must  be  fed,  it  should  be  sprinkled  before  feeding. 
Usually,  it  will  pay  to  buy  good  hay  for  the  horses  and 
make  some  other  use  of  that  which  is  dusty. 

Care  of  the  Legs. — When  a  team  comes  in  with  muddy 
legs,  they  should  be  rubbed  down  or  washed,  particularly 
in  cold  weather.  Horses,  as  well  as  men,  can  get  rheu- 
matism. In  general,  it  is  well  to  devote  more  time  to  the 
legs,  even  if  the  back  is  neglected. 

Bits. — When  the  bits  are  colder  than  freezing,  they 
should  be  warmed  by  putting  them  in  water,  even  freez- 
ing water,  or  by  taking  them  into  a  warm  room.  It  is 
not  the  direct  effect  of  cold  that  hurts,  but  the  frosty 
bit  freezes  to  the  tongue  and  mouth  and  may  tear  the  skin. 
If  one  doubts  this,  he  should  touch  the  tip  of  his  tongue 


HORSES  313 

to  a  piece  of  iron  that  is  colder  than  freezing.  He  will 
probably  never  forget   the  experience. 

Sore  Shoulders. — Many  farm  horses  suffer  with  sore 
shoulders.  This  can  nearly  always  be  prevented.  The 
collar  should  fit.  It  should  be  kept  clean.  The  shoulders 
should  be  washed  in  salt  water  at  noon  and  evening  if 
there  is  danger  of  sore  shoulders.  Sometimes  a  collar 
that  fitted  early  in  the  season  ceases  to  fit  when  the  horse 
gets  thinner. 

There  are  a  few  points  that  are  often  discussed  under 
the  head  of  cruelty  to  animals,  and  that  are  not  always 
understood. 

Clipping. — Driving  horses  sometimes  have  their  hair 
clipped  in  the  winter.  Clipping  of  horses  can  do  no  harm; 
in  fact,  it  is  a  positive  comfort,  provided  the  horses  are 
well  blanketed.  I  notice  the  athletes  who  run  in  the 
winter  wear  only  the  thinnest  clothing,  and  run  with  bare 
legs  when  the  thermometer  stands  below  zero.  They  are 
warm  enough  while  running,  and  the  moment  they  stop 
they  are  covered  with  overcoats  and  blankets.  So  with  a 
clipped  horse;  he  is  more  comfortable  while  going.  The 
only  danger  is  that  he  will  not  be  well  blanketed  when  he 
stops.  A  Uvery  horse  should  not  be  clipped,  because 
some  of  the  promiscuous  drivers  will  let  him  suffer;  but 
a  nice  carriage  horse  that  is  always  well  cared  for  is  not 
harmed. 

Blinders  that  come  close  to  the  head  are  very  objec- 
tionable, but  those  that  stand  out  from  the  head  do  no 
harm.  It  is  frequently  desirable  to  have  some  shield  that 
will  keep  the  horse  from  watching  every  move  of  the  driver. 

Over-check. — The  purpose  of  the  ''over-check"  is  to  raise 


314  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

the  nose  of  d  trotter,  so  that  in  a  race  the  air  will  have  a 
straighter  course  from  the  nostrils  to  his  lungs.  When 
fractions  of  a  second  decide  the  race,  this  is  important. 
We  have  copied  this  kind  of  check-rein  from  the  race- 
track. It  is  not  at  all  suited  to  ordinary  driving,  but  if 
not  too  tight  it  is  not  so  serious. 

Docked  Tails. — Many  city  persons  desire  that  their 
driving  horses  have  docked  tails.  This  practice  is  probably 
no  more  painful  to  the  horse  than  is  dehorning  to  a  cow, 
but  the  latter  practice  is  humane  when  we  consider  how 
much  hooking  it  eliminates.  The  usefulness  of  the  prac- 
tice justifies  it.  Once  in  a  long  time,  a  horse  is  docked 
because  it  uses  its  tail  to  hold  the  lines  while  it  runs  away, 
but  this  is  not  common.  Perhaps  the  greatest  harm  to  a 
docked  horse  comes  when  it  is  no  longer  a  ''high  stepper," 
and  takes  its  place  on  some  peddler's  wagon,  where  it 
becomes  a  feeding-place  for  flies. 

The  important  point  is  not  this  particular  example, 
but  the  point  of  view  that  is  back  of  it  all.  The  primitive 
idea  of  beauty  seems  to  be  a  distorted  body.  The  savage 
paints  his  body,  wears  rings  in  his  ears  and  nose,  and 
carves  out  various  other  improvements.  There  was  a 
time  when  men  spent  much  time  in  training  trees  into 
odd  shapes,  or  trimmed  them  into  grotesque  forms.  A 
remnant  of  the  same  idea  of  beauty  leads  men  to  trim 
dogs'  ears  to  the  desired  shape,  and  to  the  docking  of 
horses'  tails.  Some  day  we  will  come  to  appreciate  the 
beauty  of  a  tree  that  grows  in  its  natural  shape,  the  beauty 
and  symmetry  of  a  whole  horse,  with  its  full,  flowing 
mane  and  tail.  It  is  a  hopeful  sign  that  few  men  who 
drive   their   own   horses  think   the   bobtail   is   beautiful. 


HORSES  315 

It  is  admired  mostly  by  those  who  deal  with  horses  second- 
hand. 

287.  Training  Horses.  Because  of  the  high  esteem 
in  which  the  horse  is  held,  we  are  likely  to  over-estimate 
his  intelligence.  When  we  consider  the  matter  without 
sentiment,  we  must  admit  that  the  horse  is  a  rather  stupid 
animal.  The  horse  appears  to  have  little  affection  for  men 
or  other  animals,  and  cares  little  for  our  admiration. 
The  dog  will  do  almost  anything  to  please  his  master, 
and  is  always  keenly  appreciative  of  a  word  of  commen- 
dation. These  emotions  are  of  the  greatest  importance 
in  training  dogs,  but  we  must  not  expect  them  to  have 
much  value  in  training  horses. 

The  horse  seems  to  have  very  limited  reason, — much 
more  limited  than  that  of  a  dog.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  horse  has  a  remarkable  memory.  If  a  horse  is  con- 
quered by  ropes  or  straps,  he  does  not  seem  to  understand 
that  he  could  run  away  when  these  are  removed.  If  he 
is  tripped  with  a  rope  at  the  same  time  that  he  feels  the 
pull  on  the  bit,  he  seems  to  rernember  the  fall  ever  after 
and  to  associate  it  with  a  pull  on  the  bit. 

Since  a  horse  has  such  a  good  memory  and  so  little 
reason,  we  should  use  extreme  care  in  training  him  so 
that  each  step  will  go  all  right.  A  single  runaway  may  be 
remembered  forever,  and  spoil  the  horse.  We  should, 
therefore,  take  no  chances,  and  should  trust  the  horse 
as  little  as  possible. 

A  horse  should  be  trained  to  stand  still  while  being 
harnessed  and  hitched  up,  and  until  the  word  to  start  is 
given.  If  this  training  is  not  given  when  the  colt  is  first 
used,  it  will  be  very  hard  to  acquire  later. 


316  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

Very  few  words  or  signals  should  be  used,  and  these 
should  always  be  used  to  mean  exactly  the  same  thing, 
and  the  command  should  be  carried  out.  Whoa  should 
always  mean  to  stop;  it  should  not  mean  to  go  slowly 
or  to  get  ready  to  stop.  Steady  is  the  word  to  use  if  we 
wish  to  go  more  slowly.  Back  should  always  mean  to 
move  backwards.  Many  drivers  use  it  to  mean  to  stop. 
A  horse  should  never  be  allowed  to  start  without  the 
spoken  word.  If  getting  into  the  wagon  is  the  signal 
for  starting,  we  should  not  blame  the  horse  if  he  starts 
before  we  are  all  ready.  He  is  obeying  our  command 
if  he  starts  as  soon  as  he  hears  the  step  on  the  wagon. 
If  we  wiggle  the  Hues  to  make  him  start,  we  must  not 
blame  him  for  starting  when  we  pick  up  the  lines.  Such 
words  as  whoa-back  are  impossible  commands.  While 
I  was  writing  one  of  these  chapters,  a  man  who  was  cul- 
tivating in  the  garden  under  my  window,  gave  the  fol- 
lowing command:  Come  here!  Where  are  you  going! 
Whoa-back!  Get  up  there!  Whoa!  Whoa!  The  horse 
merely  stepped  around  on  a  few  more  vegetables. 

The  word  should  precede  any  severe  pull  on  the  lines, 
as  the  command  should  precede  the  punishment  for  diso- 
bedience. Some  persons  pull  on  the  hues  when  they  want 
a  horse  to  go  faster.  The  team  that  ran  away  and  ran 
harder  the  more  it  was  held  in,  but  that  stopped  when 
the    pulling    ceased,    was   trained   in   this   manner. 

288.  Rules  of  the  Road.  When  two  vehicles  meet, 
each  one  should  turn  to  the  right,  and  give  more  than  half 
of  the  road.  If  one  of  the  vehicles  has  a  heavy  load  and 
cannot  readily  turn  out,  the  hghter  one  should  go  around. 
The  heavy  load  should  stop  if  the  passing  is  difficult 


QUESTIONS  317 

If  one  desires  to  pass  a  vehicle  going  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, he  should  turn  to  the  left.  Courtesy  demands  that 
the  slower-moving  vehicle  turn  to  the  right  to  aid  in  pass- 
ing; however,  the  law  does  not  require 
this  in  most  states. 

When    crossing    streets   in    cities,  one      

should  turn  corners  as  indicated  in  Fig.      

160.     That  is,  one  remains  close   to   the 

curb  if  this  keeps  him  on  the  right  side  of 

the  street  (6).  But,  when  making  a  turn  Fig.  leo. 

as  in  a,  the  street  is  crossed  before  the      tuming*'^stree?cor?. 

.  .  ^  ,  .  .  ,  IT    •  ers  when  driving  in 

turn  IS  made.    This  avoids  colhsions.  a  city. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  How  long  since  horse- power  began  to  be  used  generally  in  seed- 
ing grain?  In  corn-planting?  In  harvesting  and  mowing?  In  bind- 
ing grain?  In  carrying  bundles?  In  raking?  In  cutting  corn?  In 
lifting  hay  from  wagons  to  stacks?     (Ask  some  of  the  older  farmers.) 

2.  Are  there  any  farm  operations  in  your  county  in  which  more 
horses  per  man  are  now  used  than  were  formerly  used?  In  what  other 
operations  can  the  number  of  horses  per  man  be  profitably  increased? 

3  How  has  the  number  of  horses  per  man  and  acres  per  man  and  per 
horse  changed  during  the  past  thirty  years?    (See  Appendix,  Table  16.) 

4.  What  breeds  of  horses  are  kept  in  your  county?  Which  breeds 
are  most  numerous? 

5.  How  many  commands  or  other  words  does  a  well-trained  dog 
understand  ?  How  many  does  a  cat  understand  ?  A  horse  ? 

6.  Which  will  a  horse  obey  more  quickly,  a  word  or  a  touch? 
Will  he  move  quicker  if  told  to  "get  over,"  or  if  slapped? 

7.  Where  is  a  horse's  knee  joint?  Which  way  does  it  bend?  Where 
is  the  hock  joint?  Which  way  does  it  bend? 

8.  Can  a  horse  sleep  when  standing? 

9.  What  does  it  indicate  if  a  horse  rests  one  of  his  front  feet? 
One  of  his  hind  feet? 

10.  How  are  the  legs  placed  when  a  horse  lies  down?  How  does  a 
horse  get  up?   How  does  a  cow  get  up? 


318 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


11.  When  a  horse  starts  after  standing,  what  foot  does  he  put 
forward  first?  What  foot  moves  next?  When  he  trots,  do  the  feet 
on  the  same  side  move  together,  or  do  lefts  and  rights  go  together? 
What  is  the  order  in  pacing? 

12.  What  is  meant  by  "forging?"   By  "over-reaching?" 

13.  What  does  it  mean  to  say  that  a  horse  is  16  hands? 

14.  Why  do  low-wheeled  wagons  pull  harder  than  high-wheeled 
ones  ?  Under  what  conditions  are  low  wheels  desirable  ?  When  ar« 
high  wheels  preferable? 

15.  Why  does  a  plow  draw  easier  when  the  tugs  are  short? 

LABORATORY   EXERCISES 

69.  Age  of  Horses. 

Practice  telling  the  age  of  horses  by  their  teeth,  page  308. 

70.  Proportions  of  the  Horse. 

Materials. — Two  or  more  horses.  Measure,  prepared  as  follows: 
A  piece  of  board  18  inches  long  and  two  inches  wide  is  nailed 
at  right  angles  to  a  similar  piece  four  feet  long.  Mark  off  the  long 
piece  in  one-inch  lengths,  beginning  at  the  inside.  Strap  an  ordinary 
carpenter's  square  so  that  it  moves  freely  on  the  stick.    (Fig.  161.) 

Take  the  following  measurements  of  two  or  more  horses  (see  Fig. 
162  for  method  of  measuring) : 


1.  Length  of  head,  from  tip  of  lips  to  top  of 

poll  (a-b) 

2.  Length  of  the  neck,  from  top  of  withers  to 

poll  {a-c) 

3.  Height  of  the  shoulder,  from  the  top  of  the 

withers  to  the  point  of  the  elbow  ic-d)  .... 

4.  Depth  of  the  body,  from  the  middle  of  the 

abdomen  to  the  middle  of  the  back  {J-g) . . 

5.  Width  of  the  body,  from  one  side  to  the  other .  . 

6.  Length  of  the  body,  from  point  of  elbow  to 

buttock  {d-k) 

7.  Height  at  withers  (c  to  ground) 

8.  Height  at  rump  {h  to  ground) 

9.  "Daylight"  under  body  (m  to  ground) 


Names  of  Horses 


LABORATORY   EXERCISES 


319 


If  the  horse  has  good  proportions,  measurements  1,  2,  3,  4  and  5 
will  be  nearly  the  same.  Measurements  6,  7,  and  8  will  be  nearly  equal, 
and  will  each  be  two  and  one-half  times  the  length  of  the  head.    If 


*r- 

^L 

-> 

^ 

!  i  i  i  i  I ! !  1  i  Ji^fC^^^^i« 

;;ii;{i-'.j 

1 

? 

1 

■*■ 

Fig.  161. 


Instrument  for  measuring  horses.    Four  feet  long  and  eighteen  inches 
wide.  (M.  W.  Harper.) 


the  horse  is  a  draft  horse,  the  "daylight"  under  the  body  (measure- 
ment 9)  should  not  be  over  half  the  height.  If  a  roadster,  it  should 
be  over  half  the  height. 

71.  Score  Card  for  Horses.    (Adapted  from  M.  W.  Harper.) 

Materials. — One  or  more  horses.    Each  student  to  fill  out  the  score 

card  for  one  or  more  horses. 

The  object  of  a  score  card  is  to  aid  one  in  making  a  systematic  ex- 


FiG.  162  A  well-proportioned  horse:  a,  poll;  6,  lips;  c,  withers  or  shoulder 
tops;  a,  point  of  shoulder;  e,  chest;  f,  back;  g,  abdomen;  h,  hips;  /,  rump;  k,  buttock; 
I,  knee;  n,  fetlock  joint. 

amination.  There  are  so  many  points  to  be  considered  in  judging  any 
animal  that  one  who  has  not  had  many  years  of  experience  will  omit 
some  if  he  does  not  have  a  list  of  them. 


320 


h:LEMENTS  OP  AGRICULTURE 


Score  Card  for  Horses 

For  draft 

For  driving 

Scale  of  points 

§.§ 
Is 

CO 

1 

11 

II 

a 

General,  Appearance:  Draft  45;  Driving  47. 
Age. — Estimated    years 

15 

9 

8 
1 

4 
5 
3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 
3 

2 

1 

2 

8 

•• 

8 

6 

10 

3 

10 
5 
5 

2 

1 
1 

1 
1  . 

3 
3 

2 

1 

2 

8 

Actual                         years                    . 

Height. — Estimated hands 

Actual    hands 

Weight. — ^Estimated pounds 

Actual pounds .... 

Form. — For  draft,  low,  massive,  symmetri- 
cal; for  driving,  high,  lithe,  indicative  of 

•  ■ 

Action. — Step,  smooth,   quick,  long;    trot, 

Temperament. — Lively,  pleasant    

Head  and  Neck:  Draft  5,  Driving  6 

Head. — Lean;  length,  two-fifths  height  of 
withers;   width  of  forehead,   more   than 
one-third  length  of  head.    For  driving, 
smaller,   carried  higher  and  more  hori- 

Muzzle. — Fine;    nostrils   large;     lips    thin; 
teeth  sound .... 

Eyes. — Full,  bright  and  intelligent 

Ears. — Short,  clean,  fine,  directed  forward; 

Neck. — Pyramidal,  muscled;    throat  clean, 
fine;    windpipe    large.     For    draft,    neck 
shorter,  thicker,  more  horizontal 

Forequarters:  Draft,  19;  driving,  19. 

Shoulders. — Long;    point    of    shoulder    to 

point  of  withers  equals  length  of  head. 

For  draft,  shorter  and  more  upright.  .  . 
Knees.  —  Clean  cut,    wide,    deep,  strongly 

supported 

•  • 

Canons. — Vertical,   9    to    10    inches    long, 
lean,  wide;   tendons  well  attached.    For 
driving,  longer 

Fetlocks.— Wide,    thick,    clean,    free   from 

Pasterns. — Angle   45°,   fetlock   to   ground, 
7  to  8  inches.    For  driving,  long,  sloping. 
For  draft,  short,  more  upright 

Feet. — Round,  even  size,  horn  dark-colored, 
dense;   sole  concave;   bars  strong;  frog 
large,    elastic;     heel    vertical,    one -half 

COLLATERAL  READING 
Score  Card  for  Horses,  continued 


321 


Scale  of  points 


For  draft 


g2 


For  driving 


12 


b;3 


Body:    Draft,   10;  driving  9. 
Chest  in  general. — High,  long. 


For  draft 
For  driving 


wide,  half  height  of  horse 

higher 

Withers. — Clearly  defined  for  driving 
Breast. — For  driving,  high,  projecting.  For 

draft,  broad  and  muscular. 
Ribs. — Long,  round  curvature, 
Back. — Straight,  short,  muscular;  shoulders 

to  haunch  equals  length  of  head.    For 

driving,  longer 

Loin. — Wide,  short,  thick,  strongly  joined 

to  hips 

Underline. — Long;  for  draft,  flank  low.  . 
Hindquarters:    Draft,  21;  driving,  19. 
Hips. — Level,  wide  in  proportion  to  other 

parts;  for  draft,  smooth;  for  driving,  more 

prominent 

Tail. — Set  and  carried  high;  long,  full,  fine. 
Thighs. — For    driving,    long.      For    draft, 

shorter,   more  horizontal,   muscular.  .  .  . 
Hocks. — Clean   cut,   large,   straight,    deep. 

For  draft  wider, 


Canons. — 11  to  12  inches  long,  otherwise  as 
for  front  legs 

Fetlocks. — As  above 

Pasterns. — As  above;  angle,  60° 

Feet. — Compared  with  above,  more  oval 
more  concave;  heels  higher,  more  sep 
arated;  walls  more  vertical 


Total 


100 


100 


COLLATERAL   READING 

Market  Classes  of  Horses,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  No  37. 
The  Preservation  of  Our  Native  Types  of  Horses,  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  Circular  No.  137. 

The  Horse,  by  I.  P.  Roberts. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  by  C.  S.  Plumb,  pp.  1-166. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  415-510. 
For  references  on  feeding,  see  page  299. 


m?^~ 


Fig.  163.    The  dairy  type. 


Fig.  164.     The  beef  type.   A  Hereford  cow 


(322) 


CHAPTER   XII 
CATTLE 

289.  Forms  of  Beef  and  Dairy  Cattle.  Just  as  there 
are  two  distinct  types  of  horses,  the  roadster  and  the 
draft  horse,  so  there  are  two  distinct  types  of  cattle, — 
the  dairy  and  the  beef  breeds.  In  both  cases,  there  are 
many  common  animals  that  do  not  belong  to  either  class. 
As  a  horse  cannot  be  best  for  both  speed  and  draft  pur- 
poses, so  a  cow  cannot  excel  for  both  meat  and  milk.  A 
few  cattle  are  bred  for  both  purposes.  These  are  called 
dual-purpose  breeds,  but  none  of  these  breeds  is  exten- 
sively raised,  as  they  cannot  compete  with  either  the 
dairy  or  the  beef  breeds.  The  effort  to  develop  a  great 
dual-purpose  breed  must  always  fail.  The  following  table 
gives  some  of  the  contrasts  between  the  beef  and  the  dairy 

form: 

Dairy  Beef 

Form Wedge-shaped.  Rectangular. 

Head Small,  long,  narrow.      Small,  but  thicker. 

Eyes Bright,  prominent.        Same. 

Muzzle Mouth  and  nostrils       Same. 

large. 

Neck Fine,  medium  Short,  thick. 

length,  thin. 

Shoulders Thin,  lean;  bony.  Heavy,  well-fleshed,  wide 

between  front  legs,  wide 
on  top  just  behind 
shoulders. 

Back Crooked.  Straight 

Loin  (back) Not  fleshy.  Broad,  thick,  fleshy. 

Flank High.  Low. 

Thighs Thin.  Full,  heavy. 

Udder  and  milk  veins. Large,  prominent.         Not  prominent. 

Skin  and  hair Soft,  pliable.  Same. 

(323) 


324  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

Both  types  of  animals  need  good  digestion,  good  lungs 
and  good  circulation.  These  are  indicated  by  large  abdo- 
men,  well-developed  chest,  soft,  pUable  skin,  and  general 
vigorous    appearance. 

The  dairy  animal  is  wedge-shaped.  In  Fig.  163  the  top 
and  bottom  lines  approach  each  other  in  the  forepart  of  the 
body.  If  viewed  from  above,  the  side  lines  also  approach. 
The  beef  animal  has  a  much  better  development  of  the 
fore-quarters.  The  top  and  bottom  lines  are  parallel. 
The  animal  is  shaped  Uke  a  brick  set  on  edge.  The  neck, 
shoulders  and  thighs  of  a  dairy  cow  are  thin  and  lean. 
Her  loin  is  also  lean.  Her  hip  and  tail  bones  are  promi- 
nent. If  she  used  her  food  in  developing  these  parts,  it 
would  be  at  the  expense  of  milk-production.  But  all  these 
parts  need  to  be  well  developed  in  a  beef  animal.  The 
highest  -  priced  cuts  of  meat  come  from  the  loin.  The 
back  should,  therefore,  be  broad  and  full.  The  thighs  and 
shoulders  should  be  full  and  heavy.  The  dairy  animal 
needs  a  large  udder  and  large  milk -veins  that  extend 
from  the  udder  about  half  way  along  the  abdomen  and 
there  enter  it.  If  these  veins  are  large,  they  indicate  a 
large  flow  of  blood  from  the  udder.  This  is  necessary 
if  much  milk  is  to  be  produced. 

290.  Care  of  Beef  and  Dairy  Cattle.  Beef  and  dairy 
cattle  require  very  different  care,  so  much  so  that  men 
in  dairy  regions  rarely  know  how  to  handle  beef  cattle, 
and  the  few  dairymen  in  beef-producing  regions  usually 
do  not  know  how  to  care  for  dairy  animals.  Dairy  ani- 
mals need  to  be  warmly  housed  in  well-ventilated  barns, 
and  need  much  attention.  Beef  animals  require  much 
less  attention.    Careful  experiments  by  Armsby  and  the 


CATTLE  325 

experience  of  feeders  indicate  that  fattening  steers  do  better 
in  dry,  open  sheds,  that  are  well  bedded,  than  in  warm 
barns.  In  general,  fat  animals  do  not  need  so  warm  quar- 
ters as  do  lean  ones.  The  feed  requirements  are  also  quite 
different.    (See  Appendix,  Table  7.) 

291.  Breeds   of   Cattle.     The   leading   breeds   of   cattle 
in  America  are: 


Shorthorn,  or  Durham,  from  England. 

Hereford,  from  England. 

Polled  Hereford,  developed  in  the  United  States. 

Aberdeen- Angus,  from  Scotland. 

Galloways,  from  Scotland. 

Polled  Durham,  developed  in  the  United  States. 

Diial-purpose  Breeds — 

Shorthorns  (milking  strains). 
Devon,  from  England. 
Red  Polled,  from  England. 

Dairy  Breeds — 

Holstein-Friesian,  from  Holland. 
Jersey,  from  the  Island  of  Jersey. 
Guernsey,  from  the  Island  of  Guernsey. 
Ayrshire,  from  Scotland. 
Dutch  Belted,  from  Holland. 
Brown  Swiss,  from  Switzerland. 

Shorthorns  were  one  of  the  first  breeds  to  be  widely 
introduced  into  the  United  States.  They  are  more  widely 
distributed  than  any  other  breed  of  cattle.  The  early 
introductions  were  mostly  of  a  dual-purpose  type,  but 
there  has  been  a  constant  development  toward  better 
beef  quahties  and  a  loss  of  milking  qualities.  At  the  present 
time   there   are   relatively   few   dual-purpose   Shorthorns. 


326 


ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 


Still,  the  breed  ranks  above  the  other  beef  breeds  in 
milk-production.  The  desirability  of  having  hornless 
cattle  led  to  the  development  of  the  Polled  Durham 
breed  in  the  United  States.  Some  of  these  were  secured 
by    collecting    and    breeding    hornless    Shorthorns    that 


^^.    , -  ..M      \  »i 


Fig.  165      The  beef  type.   A  famous  Shorthorn  bull 

appeared  from  time  to  time  as  sports.  Those  that  were 
developed  in  this  way  are  called  ''double  standard/' 
because  they  are  eligible  to  record  in  both  the  Shorthorn 
and  the  Polled  Durham  herdbooks.  Others  were  developed 
by  crossing  Shorthorns  with  native  polled  cattle.  These 
are  single  standard,  not  being  eligible  to  record  in  the  Short- 
horn herdbook.  Shorthorn  cattle  are  more  variable  in 
color  than  any  other  breed.  They  may  be  pure  red,  pure 
white,  mixed  red  and  white,  or  roan. 


CATTLE 


327 


Herefords  were  not  much  known  in  the  United  States 
until  about  1880.  They  gained  their  first  popularity  on 
the  ranges,  where  they  stood  the  hardship  well,  and  proved 
to  be  able  to  transmit  their  good  qualities  to  half-breed 
offspring.  Later,  they  have  gained  favor  because  of  their 
early  development.  Mature  animals  weigh  about  the  same 
as   Shorthorns,  but  the  calves  and   yearlings  are   heavier 


A  typical  dual-purpose  Shorthorn  cov. 

than  Shorthorns.  The  Herefords  are  very  uniform  in  color, 
with  white  heads  and  red  bodies  with  white  markings. 

Aberdeen-Angus  cattle  attracted  little  attention  in 
this  country  until  about  1885.  Since  that  time  they  have 
.come  to  be  one  of  the  important  breeds.  They  are  horn- 
less, and  about  95  per  cent  of  the  calves  are  hornless 
when  they  are  crossed  with  horned  cattle.  The  breed  is 
black  and  has  a  smooth  coat. 

Galloways  are  another  breed  of  black  hornless  cattle. 
They  can  usually  be  told  from  the  Angus  by  their  longer 
hair  and  coarser  bones.  During  the  winter,  their  long, 
shaggy  Qoats  give  a  high  value  to  the  hides  fov  robQ§, 


328  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

They  are  good  grazing,  hardy  cattle,  a  little  slower  to 
mature  than  are  the  Angus. 

There  are  a  considerable  number  of  Red-Polled  cattle 
in  the  United  States,  and  some  Devons  and  a  few  Brown 
Swiss,  but  none  of  these  breeds  has  gained  the  prominent 
place  that  is  occupied  by  the  preceding  ones.  The  Ameri- 
can demand  seems  to  be  for  either  dairy  or  beef  breeds, 
and  not  for  dual-purpose  animals. 

Holstein-Friesian  cattle  are  spotted  black  and  white 
in  color,  which  distinguishes  them  from  most  other  breeds. 
They  are  probably  the  most  widely  distributed  dairy 
breed,  and  are  the  leading  dairy  breed  in  northern  Europe 
and  in  America.  They  are  larger  than  the  other  dairy 
breeds,  and  can  consume  more  rough  feed.  They  are  the 
most  popular  breed  for  supplying  milk  for  our  large  cities, 
because  they  give  more  milk  than  any  other  breed  of  cattle. 
The  milk  is  light  in  color,  and  contains  a  lower  percentage 
of  fat  than  that  of  some  other  breeds.  But  some  individu- 
als in  the  breed  give  rich  milk.  The  milk  is  high  in  per 
cent  of  soUds  not  fat.  The  large  size  of  the  Holsteins 
makes  them  of  more  value  for  beef  than  are  the  other 
dairy  breeds.  They  cannot  compete  with  the  regular  beef 
breeds,  but  their  veal  calves  make  a  valuable  by-product. 

The  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  tested 
the  milk  from  a  large  number  of  animals  with  the  follow- 
ing result: 

Per  cent  of  fat 

Holstein-Friesian 3.4 

Ayrshire 3.6 

Skorthorn 4.4 

Devon     4.6 

Guernsey    5.3 

Jersey 5.6 


CATTLE 


329 


Jersey  cattle  are  usually  gray  or  fawn-colored.  They 
can  be  distinguished  from  Guernseys  by  their  black  noses. 
They  developed  in  the  little  island  of  Jersey,  that  is  only 


Fig.  167.     Jersey  cow 

eleven  miles  long  and  six  wide.  They  are  held  in  high 
esteem  for  the  richness  of  their  milk.  They  do  not  stand 
exposure  and  other  adverse  conditions  quite  so  well  as 
do  the   Holsteins,  and   have  not   been    able   to  compete 


Fig.  168.     A  two-year-old  Jersey  bull 

with  this  breed  in  milk-production.  But  they  have  been 
able  to  hold  their  own  where  butter  is  made  or  where 
cream  is  sold.  It  is  the  most  popular  dairy  breed  in  America 


330  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

except  in  the  neighborhood  of  large  cities,  where  the  Hol- 
steins  outnumber  the  Jerseys. 

Guernsey  cattle  are  similar  to  the  Jerseys  in  many 
respects.  Like  the  Jerseys,  they  have  been  handicapped 
by  the  Hmited  numbers  in  their  original  home,  so  that 
importations  could  not  be  so  rapid  as  has  been  desired. 
They  are  usually  yellow  or  orange  in  color,  with  white 
spots.  The  nose  is  flesh-colored,  which  distinguishes 
them  from  the  Jerseys.  They  are  sUghtly  larger  than  the 
Jerseys.  Their  friends  claim  that  they  give  more  milk. 
They  are  gaining  in  popularity  in  America. 

Ayrshires  developed  under  more  severe  climatic  con- 
ditions, and  are  very  active  and  hardy.  They  are  not 
well  known  in  America  outside  of  New  York  and  New 
England. 

292.  Pedigrees.  The  breeders  of  each  breed  of  pure- 
bred stock  have  organizations  for  keeping  the  records 
of  breeding  of  the  individuals  and  for  advertising  purposes. 
Each  animal  that  is  born  is  eUgible  to  record  in  the  herd- 
book,  provided  both  its  parents  are  recorded,  and  unless 
disquaUfied  for  some  defect.  A  record  of  an  individual, 
showing,  the  parents,  grandparents,  etc.,  as  far  back  as 
the  record  has  been  kept,  is  called  a  pedigree.  Americans 
have  been  foremost  in  keeping  up  these  books,  because 
we  attach  so  much  importance  to  pedigrees.  No  herd- 
books  were  kept  in  Holland  until  our  desire  for  pedigrees 
made  them  necessary.  Both  Jersey  and  Holstein  herd- 
books  were  first  established  in  the  United  States. 

We  have  always  given  more  attention  to  pedigrees 
than  is  given  in  Europe.  In  this  country,  no  animal  is 
eligible  to  record  unless  both  parents   are  recorded.    In 


CATTLE  331 

England,  an  animal  that  is  fifteen-sixteenths  Shorthorn 
is  eligible  to  record.  It  is  very  doubtful  whether  any 
harm  comes  of  this  practice;  but  it  is  rather  absurd  for 
us  to  import  such  animals,  when  we  refuse  to  record 
our  own  high  grades  with  an  equal  amount  of  Shorthorn 
blood. 

Any  animal  that  is  eligible  to  record  in  a  herdbook 
is  called  a  pure-blood  or  thoroughbred.  The  latter  word 
used  to  be  applied  to  a  particular  type  of  running  horses, 
but  it  is  now  commonly  used  to  mean  any  pure-bred 
animal.  A  cross  between  a  pure-bred  animal  and  com- 
mon stock  is  called  a  grade.  If  an  animal  is  three-quarters 
or  more  of  one  breed,  it  is  called  a  high-grade.  An  animal 
that  is  a  cross  between  two  pure-bred  animals  of  different 
breeds  is  called  a  cross-bred  animal. 

293.  Value  of  Pedigrees.  Pure-bred  animals  are  valu- 
able, because  when  bred  with  common  mixed  stock  they 
are  usually  able  to  impress  their  characters  on  the  off- 
spring,— ^they  are  prepotent.  They  have  been  bred  to  a 
single  type  so  long  that  their  characters  are  more  firmly 
fixed,  and  they  are  usually  able  to  overcome  the  less 
stable  characters  of  common  stock.  Many  grade  animals 
are  as  good  as  pure-bred  ones  except  that  they  are  not 
so  Hkely  to  transmit  their  good  qualities.  (See  Mendel's 
law,  page  19.) 

Not  every  animal  with  a  pedigree  is  worth  keeping. 
The  individual  should  be  a  good  one  and  should  have  good 
ancestors  for  two  or  three  generations.  Previous  ances- 
tors are  of  much  less  consequence.  Too  often  we  have 
paid  high  prices  for  animals  simply  because  they  carried 
a   pedigree.     A   pedigree  in   itself  is   merely   a   record   of 


332  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

parentage.  The  mere  fact  that  the  record  is  written  does 
not  prove  that  the  individual  is  good. 

294.  Advanced  Registry.  One  of  the  most  hopeful 
developments  of  the  system  of  registry  is  the  taking  of 
performance  records.  It  is  not  the  mere  Ust  of  ancestors, 
but  their  records  and  the  record  of  the  individual,  that 
are  of  most  value.  The  Holstein-Priesian  Association 
has  been  most  active  in  this  work.  Cows  are  milked  for 
a  week  or  more  under  the  supervision  of  an  official  repre- 
sentative of  an  agricultural  experiment  station,  and  the 
milk  is  tested  for  butter-fat.  In  order  to  be  admitted  to 
advanced  registry,  a  mature  cow  must  give  12  pounds 
of  butter-fat — equivalent  to  14  pounds  of  butter — per 
week.  A  graduated  scale  is  provided  for  young  cows. 
Provision  is  also  made  for  yearly  records;  these  are  much 
more  reliable.  There  are  many  objections  to  a  record  for 
one  week  only.  One  can  now  look  up  the  advanced  registry 
records  of  the  parents  and  offspring  of  an  animal.  (See 
Fig.  9.)  The  highest  record  thus  far  is  28  pounds  3 
ounces  of  butter-fat,  or  nearly  33  pounds  of  butter,^  in 
one  week,  made  by  Colantha  4ths  Johanna  1849.  This 
is  the  world's  butter  record  at  the  present  time.^  Another 
Holstein  cow  produced  over  15  tons  of  milk  in  a  year. 

The  Jersey  and  Guernsey  Associations  also  have  sys- 
tems of  advanced  registry. 

The  principle  of  performance  records  should  be  intro- 
duced with  other  pure-bred  stock  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

^The  Holstein-Friesian  Association  calculates  0.8  of  a  pound  of  butter- 
fat  as  equivalent  to  a  pound  of  butter.  Good  butter  will  not  carry  20  per 
cent  of  water.  The  factor  0.857  pounds  is  nearer  correct.  That  is,  add  one- 
sixth  to  the  butter-fat  to  get  the  butter  that  it  will  make.  This  is  the 
method  used  above. 

^The  Holstein-Friesian  Yearbook,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  320. 


CATTLE  PRODUCTS  333 

295.  Grading  Up  a  Herd.  When  one  begins  raising 
any  kind  of  stock,  he  can  soon  develop  a  good  herd  from 
common  stock  by  using  a  good  pure-bred  sire  of  the 
desired  kind.  One  will  soon  have  high  grades  that  are 
nearly  as  productive  as  pure-bred  animals.  The  use  of 
pure-bred  sires  should  be  continued,  in  order  to  prevent 
reversion. 

If  one  has  money  enough,  he  may  begin  with  pure- 
bred animals.  If  he  has  not  plenty  of  capital,  it  is  wiser 
to  begin  in  the  above  manner,  and  then  change  to  pure- 
breds  if  desired. 

CATTLE     PRODUCTS 

The  most  important  cattle  products  are  milk,  meat, 
and  leather.  The  by-products  are  almost  innumerable, 
including  fertiUzers,  combs,  hair  for  plastering,  brush 
handles,  buttons,  glue,  etc. 

Chicago  is  now  the  greatest  beef  market  in  the  world. 
A  large  number  of  the  beef  cattle  are  raised  on  the  ranges 
and  shipped  to  the  corn-        ^^'^^-r-^ 
belt  to  be  fattened.    But       /  ^  neck\ chucAprimeof RiJf 0"^^ """use/      /mw\ 
an  mcreasmg  number  are     ^ — ^^^tUecAatMrt^^^^ 
being     fattened     on     the  Y"^^ —    plateV"--C  / ''s"*"!'^ 

ranges.  The  art  of  feedmg  VjiSHm7_iii^tfAgt!^ 

cattle  so  as  to  secure  the  \U  if^ 

best     me  at- production,  -^^^^^^^^^^^^M 

J  i       i  1  i  •  Fig.  169.    Comparative  prices  of  the  dif- 

and,  at  the  same  time,  ferent  cuts  of  beef.  Chicago  retail  dealer's 
make  a    profit,  is    a   highly       method  of  cutting.    (Farmers' Bulletin  71.) 

developed  business.  The  different  cuts  of  beef  and  their 
relative  values  are  indicated  in  Fig.  169.  From  this  we 
can  see  the  importance  of  the  shape  of  the  beef  type. 


334 


ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 


The  total  value  of  milk  and  its  products  is  even  more 
than  the  value  of  the  beef  produced  in  the  United 
States. 

Milk     ■ 

296.  Composition  of  Milk.  Milk  contains  much  more 
nutriment  than  is  commonly  supposed.  A  quart  of  milk 
contains  about  the  same  amount  of  nutriment  as  three- 
quarters  of  a  pound  of  beef.  A  quart  of  skimmed  milk 
contains  as  much  nutriment  as  two-fifths  of  a  pound 
of  beef.  Milk  is  not  only  a  good  food,  but  it  is  a  cheap 
food  as  compared  with  meat  and  eggs.  One  hundred 
pounds  of  good  milk  contains  about: 

87     pounds  of  water. 

4  pounds  of  fat. 

5  pounds  of  milk  sugar. 

3.3  pounds  of  casein  and  albumen. 
'0.7  pounds  of  mineral  matter. 

297.  Clean  Milk.  Milk  is  an  excellent  breeding  place 
for  germs  of  all  kinds.    It  also  absorbs  odors  from  the  air. 

These  facts  make  it  an 
extremely  perishable 
product.  As  the  de- 
mand for  milk  in- 
creases, there  is  a  con- 
stantly increasing  de- 
mand that  the  milk 
shall  be  clean.  There 
are  a  number  of  con- 
ditions that  are  essen- 

FiG.  170.     A  clean  dairy  barn.  Note  cement  ^ial    if    milk    is    tO   keep 

floor,  tight  ceiling,  deep  gutter,  and  driveway 

for  hauling  out  manure.  swect  and  clean: 


CATTLE  PRODUCTS 


335 


Fig.  171.       ^*«Sl 

Milk  pails.  Compa 
the  chances  for  dirt  i<> 
drop  into  the  different  pails. 


Typhoid   fever   is 


The  cows  must  be  healthy. 

The  feed  must  be  good. 

The  barn  must  be  clean  and  light,  with  plenty  of  win- 
dows,  smooth  walls   and  ceilings. 

The  feeding  must  be  done  after  milking,   and  opera- 
tions  that    stir    up    dust 
should  not  be   performed 
near  milking  time. 

The     cows     must     be 
clean. 

The  milker  must  be  a 
healthy  person. 

The   water-supply   must   be   good, 
often  carried  from  infected  wells. 

The  utensils  must  all  be  sterilized  with  scalding  water. 

A  small-top,  hooded  milk  pail  should  be  used. 

As  soon  as  the  milk  is  drawn,  it  should  be  cooled  so 
as  to  check  the  growth  of  the  bacteria  that  make  it  sour. 

The  milk  should  be  kept  sealed  and  cool  until  it  is 
used.  It  may  be  spoiled  after  it  reaches  the  consumer 
just  as  easily  as  before.  If  exposed  uncovered  in  cities, 
it  is  more  likely  to  take  up  disease  germs  than  in  the 
country,  because  the  city  dust  contains  so  many  germs. 

298.  Commercial  Forms  of  Milk.  In  order  to  kill  a 
large  proportion  of  the  bacteria  in  milk  it  is  often  pas- 
teurized, or  heated  ten  to  thirty  minutes  at  temperatures 
of  180°  to  150°  Fahr.,  and  then  quickly  cooled.  Such 
milk  will  keep  sweet  longer  than  if  not  treated,  and  is 
safer  to  drink.  It  is  very  much  better  to  have  the  milk 
so  clean  that  it  will  keep  until  used  and  be  safe  without 
being  pasteurized. 


336  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

Certified  Milk  is  produced  to  supply  the  demand 
for  the  highest  grade  of  clean,  safe  milk.  It  is  produced 
by  special  agreement  under  strict  regulations  prescribed 
by  milk  commissioners.  Veterinarians,  bacteriologists, 
and  physicians  are  usually  called  upon  for  inspection 
of  the  milk  and  its  production  and  handling. 

Standardized  Milk  is  that  which  has  been  so  mixed 
as  to  give  a  required  percentage  of  fat. 

Condensed  Milk  is  formed  by  evaporating  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  water.  This  may  be  sweetened  with  cane 
sugar  or  be  unsweetened;  in  either  case,  it  is  put  up  in 
sealed  cans,  in  which  it  will  keep  for  years  if  properly 
put  up. 

Milk  Powder  or  Milk  Flour. — There  are  several  methods 
of  evaporating  milk  to  a  powder  that  is  so  dry  that  it  will 
keep;  a  part  of  the  fat  is  removed  before  evaporation. 
This  powder  can  be  shipped  in  flour  barrels,  or  in  other 
convenient  packages.  There  are  now  several  firms  pro- 
ducing this  powder.  It  may  be  dissolved  in  water  to  form 
a  fair  quality  of  milk. 

299.  Babcock  Milk  Test.  This  is  one  of  the  best  methods 
of  determining  the  amount  of  fat  in  milk.^  It  is  one  of 
the  greatest  aids  to  the  development  of  dairying.  It 
enables  the  dairyman  to  determine  which  are  his  best 
cows.  It  enables  the  creamery  to  pay  its  patrons  justly. 
It  has  greatly  facihtated  advanced  registry  systems. 
The  method  of  making  the  test  is  described  in  the  labora- 
tory exercises. 

^The  Babcock  milk  test  was  invented  by  Dr.  S.  M.  Babcock,  of  the 
Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  In  order  that  it  may  be 
furnished  at  the  least  possible  cost,  he  receives  no  royalty  from  its  manu- 
facture. 


DISEASES   OF   CATTLE 


337 


300.  Dairy  Records.  Every  dairyman  should  keep 
records  of  milk-production  of  the  different  cows,  in  order 
that  he  may  know  which  ones  pay.  Many  cows  do  not 
pay  their  board.  These  are  often  obscured  by  the  profits 
that  come  from  the  good  cows. 
The  opinion  of  the  farmer  as  to 
the  relative  merits  of  the  cows 
is  usually  not  correct.  A  spring 
balance,  weighing  pounds  and 
tenths  of  pounds,  with  a  sheet 
of  paper  beside  it,  will  enable 
one  to  weigh  the  milk  quickly. 
It  may  be  weighed  at  every 
milking,  but,  if  this  is  too  much 
work,  the  following  method  will 
give  a  fairly  accurate  compari- 
son: Weigh  the  milk  for  three 
days  at  the  beginning  of  each 
month.  The  sum  of  the  weights, 
multiplied  by  ten  will  give  the 
year's  production.  Take  samples  from  each  cow  for  the 
Babcock  test  in  the  second,  fourth  and  seventh  months 
after  the  cow  freshened.  Each  time  take  samples  for  two 
days.  The  average  of  the  three  tests  will  give  the  ap- 
proximate per  cent  of  fat. 


Fig.  172.     Weighing  the  milk  to 
find  which  cows  pay 


SOME  DISEASES  OF  CATTLE 


301.  Tuberculosis  is  one  of  the  most  serious  diseases 
of  cattle.  It  not  only  causes  great  loss  in  cattle,  but  is 
even   more  serious   with   hogs   that  are  fed  on  the   milk 


338  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

from  tuberculous  cows.  Such  milk  is  dangerous  for  human 
food.  It  is  believed  that  people,  especially  children, 
are  often  infected  in  this  way.  Sixty-nine  per  cent  of  the 
cattle  that  were  condemned  by  government  meat-inspec- 
tors at  slaughter-houses  in  the  United  States  in  1907, 
were  condemned  because  of  tuberculosis.  Of  the  105,879 
hogs  that  were  condemned,  65,618  were  for  tuberculosis. 
Of  the  436,161  parts  of  hog  carcasses  that  were  con- 
demned, 364,559  were  for  tuberculosis.^  All  these  losses 
are  borne  by  the  farmer.  The  packers  have  to  pay 
enough  less  for  the  live  animals,  so  as  to  make  good  the 
loss  of  the  condemned  ones.  A  far  greater  loss  is  caused 
by  the  low  production  and  slow  growth  of  diseased  ani- 
mals on  the  farm. 

When  tubercle  bacteria  live  in  different  animals,  they 
become  somewhat  changed.  The  bovine  and  the  human 
forms  of  tubercle  bacteria  are  slightly  different,  but  they 
are  now  believed  to  be  the  same  species  of  organism. 
Cattle  inoculated  with  the  human  form  have  been  given 
tuberculosis.  Apes,  inoculated  from  cattle,  contract 
the  disease  as  readily  as  when  inoculated  with  germs 
from  men."  The  opinion  now  generally  accepted  is  that 
little  of  the  pulmonary  tuberculosis  in  man  is  due  to  infec- 
tion from  milk,  but  that  about  half  of  the  glandular 
cases  are  of  the  bovine  type.  By  glandular  cases  is  meant 
the  cases  of  tuberculosis  of  intestines,  bones  or  other 
organs,  aside  from  lungs.  It  is  evidently  not  safe  to  use 
cows'  milk  that  contains  the  germs.  The  danger  is  much 
greater  for  children  than  for  grown  persons.    Even  though 

■^Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  1907,  p.  20 
^Experiment  Station  Record,  Vol.  18,  p.  478 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE  339 

the  chances  may  be  small,  human  life  is  too  valuable 
to  be  risked  unnecessarily.     (See  page  350.) 

The  old  opinion  was  that  tuberculosis  in  man  cr  ani- 
mals was  inherited.  We  now  know  that  it  is  an  infectious 
disease  that  is  rarely  inherited.  It  is  also  sometimes 
attributed  to  dark,  dirty  stables,  but  these  are  not  the 
cause.  A  filthy  stable  can  no  more  produce  tuberculosis 
if  the  germs  are  not  present,  than  can  a  fertile  field  pro- 
duce a  corn  crop  if  no  corn  is  planted.  The  disease  will 
spread  more  rapidly  in  dark,  unsanitary  barns,  just  as 
corn  will  yield  more  on  good  land.  Many  of  the  cattle 
that  come  from  the  ranges  of  Nevada,  and  that  never  were 
in  barns,  are  tuberculous.  We  must  distinguish  between 
the  germ  which  is  the  cause,  and  the  surroundings  which 
favor  its  growth. 

One  of  the  chief  sources  of  the  spread  of  the  disease 
is  the  creamery.  Milk  from  many  herds,  some  of  which 
are  diseased,  is  mixed  at  the  creamery,  and  the  skimmed 
milk  is  returned  to  the  farm  for  feeding  calves  or  hogs. 
And  these  animals  are  infected.  To  prevent  this  loss,  the 
milk  must  be  pasteurized,  as  is  now  done  in  the  cream- 
eries of  Denmark. 

The  other  important  source  of  infection  is  the  purchase 
of  diseased  animals.  To  guard  against  this,  one  who  has 
a  sound  herd  should  not  add  animals  that  are  not  tuber- 
culin-tested. Even  tested  animals  are  not  safe  if  they 
come  from  badly  diseased  herds.  One  should  always 
buy  from  a  sound  herd  if  possible. 

Animals  usually  do  not  show  signs  of  the  disease  until 
they  are  in  the  last  stages.  Fortunately  a  method  has 
been  found  by  means  of  which  diseased  animals  may  be 


340  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

discovered.  This  is  by  the  tubercuUn  test.  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  animal  is  taken  at  intervals  for  a  day.  Tuber- 
cuUn is  then  injected  under  the  skin.  If  the  animal 
has  tuberculosis,  the  temperature  will  rise  a  few  degrees 
during  the  following  day.  A  number  of  cautions  have  to 
be  observed  in  making  the  test  and  interpreting  results. 
The  work  should  be  done  by  a  good  veterinarian,  or  by 
an  exceedingly  careful  and  well-trained  farmer. 

Some  persons  have  feared  that  tuberculin  would  pro- 
duce the  disease.  It  is  prepared  by  allowing  tubercle 
bacteria  to  grow  in  a  liquid  usually  containing  beef  extract. 
Before  it  is  used,  it  is  twice  heated  and  twice  filtered, 
any  one  of  the  four  operations  being  sufficient  to  remove 
or  kill  all  germs.    No  injury  comes  from  its  intelligent  use. 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  keep  diseased  animals  for 
breeding  purposes.  The  calves  are  removed  as  soon  as 
born  and  all  milk  is  pasteurized  before  being  fed.  In  this 
way  a  healthy  herd  has  often  been  developed  from  a  dis- 
eased one.  The  two  herds  must  be  kept  separate  at  all 
times.  If  a  large  part  of  a  herd  is  diseased,  the  animals 
that  do  not  react  are  not  removed,  as  they  are  likely  to 
develop  the  disease  later.  This  method  of  developing  a 
sound  herd  is  named  the  Bang  method,  after  its  originator. 

302.  Milk  Fever.  One  of  the  serious  diseases  of  dairy 
cows  is  milk  fever.  It  attacks  the  best  animals.  Formerly, 
it  was  the  great  obstacle  in  the  way  of  developing  superior 
cows.  It  has  been  found  that  the  disease  can  be  easily 
cured  if  air  is  pumped  into  the  teats  so  as  to  distend 
the  udder.  After  each  quarter  is  filled,  the  teat  is  tied 
so  as  to  hold  the  air  in  it.  The  only  danger  is  that  bacteria 
may  be  introduced  into  the  udder.    The  apparatus  must 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE  341 

be  carefully  sterilized.    Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  206,  gives 
details  of  the  method. 

303.  Black-Leg.  This  is  a  very  serious  infectious  disease 
caused  by  a  certain  bacillus.  It  is  not  transmitted  by 
direct  contact,  but  comes  from  infected  soil.  Animals 
that  die  from  it  should  be  burned.  The  losses  from  this 
disease  have  been  very  serious  and  widespread.  Vacci- 
nation will  prevent  most  of  the  loss.  A  vaccine  for  this 
purpose  is  furnished  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

304.  Texas  Fever.  One  of  the  most  serious  obstacles 
to  the  development  of  the  live-stock  industry  in  the  South 
is  the  Texas  fever.  The  direct  cause  of  the  disease  is  a 
microscopic  animal  parasite  (protozoan)  that  lives  in 
the  blood.  But  it  is  not  transmitted  directly  from  one 
animal  to  another.  It  hves  a  part  of  its  life  in  the  body  of 
the  cattle  tick.  Cattle  contract  it  from  the  ticks  and  in 
no  other  way.  The  parasite  passes  a  part  of  its  life  in  the 
cow  and  a  part  in  the  tick.  This  is  similar  to  the  method 
in  which  malaria  and  yellow  fever  are  transmitted  to 
people  by  means  of  mosquitos. 

Cattle  that  are  born  in  the  South  usually  become 
immune  to  the  disease  by  infection  when  calves.  When 
northern  cattle  are  taken  South,  they  almost  invariably 
die  with  the  disease.  When  southern  cattle  are  driven 
North,  they  mark  their  passage  by  killing  the  northern 
animals  with  the  disease.  For  many  years  the  southern 
states  have  been  quarantined  for  this  reason. 

Northern  cattle,  taken  South,  are  sometimes  inoculated, 
so  as  to  produce  mild  cases  and  cause  immunity.  Another 
method  that  is  now  being  tried  is  to  eliminate  the  ticks. 


342  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

These  spend  a  part  of  their  life  on  the  ground.  By  rotating 
pastures,  they  may  be  eliminated.  To  make  this  method 
effective,  it  must  be  taken  up  by  states  or  counties,  and 
these  sections  would  have  to  establish  a  quarantine  against 
the  surrounding  infected  area.  Details  of  this  subject 
are  given  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  258. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  leading  breeds  of  dairy  cattle  in  your  county? 
What  breeds  are  gaining  in  numbers?    Why  are  they  preferred? 

2.  What  effect  does  better  feed  have  on  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the 
milk?  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  225,  p.  18. 

3.  Do  thunderstorms  make  milk  sour?  Why  does  milk  sour? 

4.  If  there  are  creameries  or  milk  stations  in  the  county,  on  what 
basis  do  they  pay  their  patrons  ?  What  effect  does  this  have  on  the 
breed  of  cows  kept  and  on  the  quality  of  the  milk? 

5.  About  how  much  is  the  average  yield  in  pounds  or  quarts  per 
year  of  the  cows  of  the  region?  (Obtain  opinions  of  farmers.)  How 
much  do  some  of  the  best  cows  produce?  How  much  profit  is  there  on 
an  average  cow?   On  a  poor  cow?    On  a  superior  cow? 

6.  If  beef  cattle  are  raised,  what  are  the  leading  breeds?  Why  are 
they  preferred? 

7.  Are  the  beef  cattle  of  the  section  raised  in  the  region  or  shipped 
into  it  for  fattening?   Why? 

8.  At  what  age  are  the  beef  cattle  usually  marketed?  Are  they 
marketed  at  the  same  age  as  formerly?    If  not,  why? 

9.  What  are  the  chief  feeds  of  beef  and  dairy  cattle  of  the 
section? 

10.  Who  in  your  county  are  raising  pure-bred  animals  of  any  kind? 

LABORATORY   EXERCISES 

72.   Score  Card  for  Dairy  Cows. 

Materials. — One  or  more  cows.  Each  student  to  fill  out  the  score 
card.  The  form  here  given  is  a  slight  modification  of  that  used  at 
Cornell  University. 


LABORATORY   EXERCISES 


343 


Score  Card  for  Dairy  Cows 


S 

Points 
deficient 

Scale  of  points 

1 

QQ 

1 

General  Appearance: 

Weight. — Estimated pounds;  actual pounds.  . 

Form. — Wedge-shaped,  as  viewed  from  front,  side  and  top.  . 

Form. — Spare,  as  indicated  by  prominent  joints  and  clean  bone 

and  lack  of  muscular  development  along  ribs  and  loins .... 

Quality. — Hair  fine,  soft;  skin  mellow,  loose,  medium  thickness 

5 
8 
8 
6 

6 

3 
5 

2 

1 

10 
4 

4 
2 

20 

10 
2 
4 

100 

Constitution. — Vigorous,  as  indicated  by  alert  expression,  evi- 
dently active  vital  functions,  and  general  healthy  appearance 

Head  and  Neck: 

Muzzle. — Clean  cut;  mouth  large;  nostrils  large ' 

Eyes. — Large,  bright    

Face. — Lean,  long;  quiet  expression    

Neck. — Fine,  medium  length;  throat  clean;  light  dewlap    .  ., 
Fore  and  Hindquarters: 

Withers. — Lean,  thin.    Shoulders. — Angular,  not  fleshy 

Hips. — Far  apart;  not  lower  than  spine ) 

■• 

Thurls. — High,  wide  apart J 

Thighs. — Thin,  long 

Body: 

Chest. — Deep,  low;  with  large  girth  and  broad,  well-sprung  ribs 

Abdomen. — Large,  well  supported,  with  moderately  high  flank 

Back. — Lean,  straight,  chineopen.  Tail. — Long,  slim,  with  fine 

switch 

•• 

Loin. — Broad  level                      .        .    • 

Milk-Secreting  Organs: 

Udder. — Large,  long,  attached  high  and  full  behind;  extending 
far  in  front  and  full'   quarters  even 

Udder. — Capacious,  flexible,  with  loose,  pliable  skin,  covered 

Teats . — Convenient  size  evenly  placed        

Milk  Veins  — Large  tortuous  large  milk  wells 

Total ,                             



73.   Scoring  Beef  Cattle. 

If  beef  cattle  are  very  important  in  the  neighborhood,  use  the 
following  score  card  in  judging  two  or  more  animals.  Or  a  score  card 
may  be  obtained  from  the  State  College  of  Agriculture.  The  following 
score  card  is  used  at  the  University  of  Illinois  for  judging  beef  cattle 


344 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


that  are  kept  for  breeding  purposes;  a  different  card  is  used  for  fat 
cattle. 

Score  Card  for  Beef  Cattle 


Standard  of  excellence 


Per. 

feet 
score 


Weight. — According  to  age 

Estimate    pounds;   actual    pounds 

Form. — Straight  top  and  underline;  deep,  broad, 
low  set,  compact,  symmetrical 

Quality. — Hair  fine;  bone  fine  but  strong;  skin  plia 
ble;  mellow,  even  covering  of  firm  flesh,  free  from 
rolls;  features  refined,  but  not  delicate;  stylish.  . 

Constitution. — Chest  capacious;  brisket  well  devel- 
oped; flanks  deep;  bone  strong 

Condition. — Thrifty,  well  fleshed,  but  not  exces 
sively  fat;  deep  covering  of  firm  flesh 

Disposition. — -Quiet,  gentle    

Color  and  markings . — According  to  breed 

Muzzle. — Mouth  and  nostrils  large;  lips  thin 

Eyes. — Large,  clear,  placid    

Face. — Short,  quiet,  expressive 

Forehead. — Broad,  full 

Ears. — Medium  size,  fine  texture 

Neck. — Thick,  short;  throat  clean,  according  to 
breed 

Shoulder  vein. — Full 

Shoulder. — Covered  with  flesh;   compact 

Brisket. — Well  developed;  breast  wide 

Dewlap. — Skin  not  too  loose  and  drooping 

Legs. — Straight,  short,  set  well  apart;  arm  full, 
bones  smooth,  strong,  being  neither  too  coarse  nor 
too  fine    

Ribs. — Long,  arched,  thickly  fleshed 

Back. — Broad,  straight,  thickly  and  evenly  fleshed. 

Loin. — Thick,  broad 

Flank. — Full,  even  with  underline 

Hips. — Smoothly  covered;  width  in  proportion  with 

other  parts 

Rump. — Long,  level,  wide  and  even  in  width;  tail 

head  smooth,  not  patchy 

Pin  bones. — Not   prominent,   width 

with  other  parts 

Thighs. — Full,  fleshed  well  down  to  hock 

Twist. — Deep,  plump,  indicating  fleshiness    

Legs. — Straight,  short,  set  well  apart;  bones  smooth, 

being  neither  coarse  nor  too  fine 


m   proportion 


Total . 


10 


10 


10 


100 


Student's 
score 


No.  1    No.  2 


Corrected 
score 


No.  1    No 


Animal Date 

Student. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES 


345 


74.  The  Babcock  Test  for  Butter-Fat  in  Milk.^ 

By  R.  A.  Pearson,  formerly  Professor  of  Dairy  Industry,  Cornell  University 
Materials. — A  hand-power   centrifugal   tester,   at   least   two   milk 
test-bottles  (Fig.  173),  one  pipette  to  measure  the  milk  (Fig.   174), 
one  acid  measure  (Fig.  175),  about  one  pint  of  sulfuric 
acid  with  specific  gravity  between  1.82  and  1.83,  a  few 
ounces  of   milk,  and   some   hot  water.    All   the 
necessary  apparatus  and  acid  can  be  purchased 
for   about   $5   from  any  dairy  supply  company. 
They  can  be  ordered  through  a  hardware  dealer. 
Sulfuric  acid  is  sold  also  at  drug  stores. 

Sampling  the  Milk. — The  milk  to  be  tested 
should  be  thoroughly  mixed  just  before  the 
sample  is  taken,  to  make  sure  that  the  fat  or 
cream  is  evenly  distributed.  This  can  be  best 
done  by  gently  pouring  back  and  forth  between^ 
two  vessels  several  times.  The  milk  should  be 
neither  very  cold  nor  hot. 

Place  the  small  end  of  the  pipette  at  the 
center  of  the  milk  and  suck  the  milk  up  above 
the  17.6  cc.  mark.  Quickly  put  the  index  finger  over  the 
upper  end  of  the  pipette,  and  by  releasing  the  pressure  allow 
the  milk  to  run  out  until  its  upper  surface  is  even  with  17.6 
cc.  mark  when  the  pipette  is  held  straight  up  and  down. 

Place  the  point  of  the  pipette  a  short  distance  into  the 
test-bottle  neck,  holding  it  against  the  glass,  and  with  both 
pipette  and  bottle  at  an  angle  (Fig.  176).  Remove  the  finger 
to  allow  the  milk  to  flow  into  the  bottle.  Be  sure  to  get 
every  drop  of  the  milk,  taking  care  to  drain  the 
pipette  and  to  blow  the  last  drop  into  the  bottle. 
A  little  practice  should  make  any  one  proficient 
with  the  pipette. 

It  is  best  always  to  make  this  test  in  duplicate; 

hence,  two  bottles  are  needed  for  each  lot  of  milk. 

Using  the  Acid. — The  acid  is  very  strong  and 

must  be  handled  with  great  care.    If  any  gets  on 

the  hands,  face  or  clothing,  it  should  be  washed  off 

quickly,  and  water  should  always  be  ready  for  this  purpose. 

Do  not  leave  the  acid  where  young  children  can  get  it. 

*  Cornell  Rural  School  Leaflet 


Fig. 174 
Pipette 
or  milk 

measure 


346 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  176.  Putting  the  milk 
into  the  test  bottle.  The  pi- 
pette is  held  at  an  angle  with 
the  test  bottle  and  its  point 
against  the  inside  of  the  neck. 


After  all  the  samples  of  milk  to  be  tested  have  been  measured, 
the  acid  should  be  added.  Fill  the  acid  measure  to  the  17.5  cc.  mark 
with  acid  that  is  neither  very  cold  nor  hot.  Pour  this  into  the  bottle 
with  the  milk,  holding  the  bottle  in  a 
slanting  position.  The  acid  will  then  carry- 
down  any  milk  left  in  the  neck  and  follow 
the  glass  surface  to  the  bottom  of  the  bot- 
tle and  form  a  layer  under  the  milk. 

Hold  the  bottle  by  the  neck  and  give  it 
a  circular  motion  for  a  few  minutes,  mix- 
ing the  milk  and  acid  until  no  milk  or 
clear  acid  is  visible  (Fig.  177).  By  this 
time,  the  contents  will  be  dark-colored 
and  hot.  This  change  is  due  to  the  acid 
dissolving  all 
the  solid  constituents  of  the  milk  except 
the  fat,  which  it  does  not  affect. 

Whirling  the  Bottles. — The  bottles  are 
whirled  to  separate  the  fat  so  that  it  can 
be  measured.  They  should  be  hot  when 
whirled.  If  necessary,  they  may  be  heated 
by  standing  in  hot  water  before  being 
put  into  the  machine.  A  steam  machine 
is  easily  kept  hot  when  in  use.  Other 
kinds  should  have 
boiling  hot  water  placed  in  them. 

Place  the  bottles  in  the  machine  so  that  each 
one  will  have  another  directly  opposite,  to  keep 
the  machine  in  balance.  Whirl  the  bottles  five 
minutes  at  the  proper  speed  for  the  machine  in 
use  (Fig.  178).  Then  stop  it,  and,  with  the 
pipette  or  other  convenient  means,  add  hot  water 
to  each  bottle  until  the  contents  come  up  to  the 
bottom  of  the  neck.  Whirl  two  mintues.  Add 
hot  water  enough  to  bring  the  top  of  the  fat 
nearly  to  the  top  of  the  graduations  on  the  neck 
of  the  bottles.  Whirl  one  minute.  The  fat  should 
then  form  a  clear  column  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 

Reading  the  Percentage. — Keep  the  fat  warm  so  that  it  will  be  in  a 
fluid  condition.  Hold  the  bottle  by  the  upper  end  of  the  neck,  letting 


M 

k 

§ 

1  :,^ 

R\''" 

\niL~^-- . 

Fig.  177.  Mixing  milk  and 
acid.  A  rotary  motion  with 
the  bottle  not  pointed  toward 
the  face. 


Fig.  178 
Whirling  the  samples 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES  347 

it  hang  in  a  perpendicular  position,  on  the  level  with  the  eye.  Read 
the  mark  or  graduations  at  the  extreme  top  and  bottom  of  the  fat 
column.  The  difference  between  these  is  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the 
milk.  Most  test-bottles  are  made  to  read  as  high  as  10  per  cent.  Each 
percentage  has  its  number  marked  on  the  glass  and  there  are  five 
small  spaces,  each  representing  .2  per  cent  between  these  principal 
marks.  Thus,  if  the  top  of  the  fat  column  is  even  with  the  third  short 
mark  above  the  7  mark,  the  top  reading  would  be  7.6;  and  if  the  bot- 
tom is  half  way  between  the  first  and  second  short  marks  above  the 
3  mark,  the  bottom  reading  would  be' 3.3;  the  difference  is  4.3,  which 
is  the  percentage  of  fat  or  number  of  pounds  of  fat  in  100  pounds 
of  the  milk  tested. 

Notes. — One  cc.  means  one  cubic  centimeter,  or  about  twenty 
drops. 

If  the  fat  column  is  clouded  with  white  specks,  probably  the  acid 
was  not  strong  enough,  or  not  enough  was  used,  or  the  heat  was  not 
high  enough. 

If  the  fat  column  is  clouded  with  dark  specks,  probably  the  acid 
was  too  strong,  or  too  much  was  used,  or  the  heat  was  too  great. 

Always  keep  the  acid  bottle  closed  when  not  in  use  or  the  acid 
will  lose  strength.    Remember  that  it  is  a  poison  and  corrosive. 

Points  to  he  Especially  Noted  in  Making  the  Babcock  Test} — (1)  Be 
sure  to  mix  the  sample  of  milk  thoroughly  before  drawing  it  out  with 
the  pipette. 

(2)  When  measuring  a  sample  of  milk  with  the  pipette,  keep  the 
index  finger  dry. 

(3)  When  measuring  a  sample  of  milk,  keep  the  mark  on  the  pipette 
on  a  level  with  the  eye.  The  same  precaution  should  be  observed 
when  reading  the  per  cent  of  fat  after  the  test  is  completed. 

(4)  Do  not  try  to  measure  a  sample  of  milk  by  trying  to  draw  the 
milk  just  to  the  mark  on  the  pipette.  Draw  the  milk  above  the  mark, 
as  directed. 

(5)  When  adding  milk  or  acid  to  the  test-bottle,  slant  the  bottle. 
The  liquid  will  then  run  down  the  lower  inside  of  the  neck  of  the  bottle, 
and  will  not  be  forced  out  by  outcoming  air. 

(6)  Do  not  hold  the  bottle  so  that  its  mouth  points  toward  your- 
self or  any  one  else.  The  action  of  the  acid  upon  the  milk  produces 
great  heat.  This  heat  often  causes  the  contents  of  the  bottle  to  spurt 
out  violently. 

J-H.  E.  Ross  in  Cornell  Rural  School  Leaflet 


348  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

(7)  After  adding  the  acid  to  the  milk,  shake  the  bottle  thoroughly 
until  the  contents  become  quite  dark  in  color. 

(8)  After  using  the  pipette,  wash  it  thoroughly,  preferably  in 
hot  water.  This  will  tend  to  prevent  the  transmission  of  disease  germs 
from  the  mouth  of  one  person  to  another,  should  any  such  germs 
be  present. 

(9)  The  tester  should  be  firmly  fastened  to  a  solid  bench  or  table. 

(10)  The  person  operating  the  machine  should  give  his  or  her 
whole  attention  to  it,  and  not  allow  his  fingers  or  clothing  to  get  in 
the  path  of  the  bottle  cups. 

(11)  Remove  all  objects  from  the  vicinity  of  the  tester.  This  will 
prevent  their  being  hit  by  the  bottle  cups  when  the  machine  is  in 
motion. 

(12)  If  acid  is  spilled  upon  anything,  pour  on  plenty  of  water, 
and  then  add  some,  alkali,  such  as  lime  or  baking  soda,  to  neutralize 
the  acid. 

(13)  Do  not  leave  the  acid  bottle  uncorked. 

(14)  Keep  all  glassware  perfectly  clean. 

(15)  After  washing  the  glassware,  rinse  it  thoroughly  in  clean 
water  to  remove  soap  powder.  The  soap  powder  and  the  acid  form  a 
violent  chemical  reaction. 

75.  To  Determine  the  Amount  of  Solids  in  Milk. 

Weigh  a  sample  of  milk.  Evaporate  to  dryness  and  weigh  again. 
Determine  the  per  cent  of  dry  matter.   Fill  out  the  following  table: 

Weight  of  dish 

Weight  of  dish  and  milk 

Weight  of  dish  and  evaporated  milk 

Weight  of  dry  matter 

Per  cent  of  dry  matter  in  milk 

Per  cent  of  solids  not  fat  (per  cent  of  dry  matter  minus  per 
cent  of  fat) 

76.  Comparison  of  Methods  of  Cream  Separation. 

Materials. — Milk-testing  outfit  as  for  No.  74,  but  with  special 
bottles  for  skimmed  milk;  skimmed  milk  from  a  cream  separator; 
skimmed  milk  that  stood  in  shallow  pans,  and  some  that  stood  in  long 
cans. 

Determine  the  per  cent  of  fat  left  in  the  skimmed  milk  in  each  case. 
If  a  cow  produces  6,000  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year,  and  if  butter-fat  is 


COLLATERAL  READING  349 

worth  25  cents  per  pound,  how  many  dollars  worth  of  fat  would  be 
lost  per  year  in  each  case? 

77.  Methods  of  Churning. 

Materials. — Milk-testing  outfit  as  for  No.  76.  Buttermilk  from 
different  homes  or  factories,  with  a  record  of  how  the  churning  was 
done.  Determine  the  per  cent  of  fat  lost  in  the  buttermilk  in  each 
case. 

78.  To  Determine   the   Effect  of   Prompt   Cooling    on  the    Souring  of 

Milk. 
Divide  a  sample  of  new  milk  into  two  parts.    Cool  one  by  setting 
in  ice  water  or  very  cold  water,  or  with  an  aerator  and  cooler.    After 
it  is  cooled,  place  both  samples  under  the  same  conditions.    WhicL 
sours  first? 

COLLATERAL   READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.: 

71.  Essentials  in  Beef-Production. 
233.  Beef  vs.  Dairy  Types  for  Beef,  p.  22. 
25] .  Indoor  vs.  Outdoor  Feeding  of  Steers,  pp.  22-25. 
106.  Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle. 
55.  The  Dairy  Herd:  Its  Formation  and  Management. 
124.  Beef  and  Dairy  Types  as  Related  to  Beef-Production, 

pp.  28-30. 
149.  Effect  of  Exposure  on  Milk-Production,  pp.  28-31. 

Profitable    and   Unprofitable   Cows.     Bulletin    No.    114, 
pp.  21-26;  No.  190,  p.  14;  No.  162,  p.  24. 
151.  Dairying  in  the  South, 
349.  The  Dairy  Industry  in  the  South. 

183.  Meat  on  the  Farm;  Butchering,  Curing  and  Keeping. 

184.  Marketing  Live  Stock. 

201.  The  Cream  Separator  on  Western  Farms. 
29.  Souring  of  Milk  and  Other  Changes  in  Milk  Products. 
42.  Facts  About  Milk. 
63.  Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm. 
74.  Milk  as  Food. 

Clean  Milk.    Bulletin  No.  227,   pp.  24-28;  No.  273,   pp. 
23-30;  No.  210,   pp.  26,*27;  No.  73,  pp.  3,  4;  No.  296, 
p.  5;  No.  169,  pp.  5,  6. 
166.  Cheese-making  on  the  Farm, 


350  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

241.  Butter-making  on  the  Farm. 

350.  The  Dehorning  of  Cattle. 

258.  Texas,  or  Tick  Fever,  and  Its  Prevention. 
206.  Milk  Fever. 

351.  The  Tuberculin  Test  of  Cattle  for  Tuberculosis. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  by  C.  S.  Plumb.  Pp.  175-332. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  4-44,  122-162, 
176-272,  301-382. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  NOTE  TO  PAGE  339 

It  has  been  shown  that  only  a  few  of  the  cows  that  have  tuberculosis 
have  their  udders  infected.  From  this  the  erroneous  conclusion  has 
often  been  drawn  that  milk  from  such  cows  is  not  likely  to  be  infected. 

Tuberculous  cows  expel  tubercle  bacilli  mainly  with  the  excreta 
from  their  bowels,  but  also  with  material  slobbered  or  discharged  from 
their  mouths  and  noses,  and  in  some  cases  bacteria  are  contained  in 
the  milk. 

The  most  serious  source  of  danger  to  milk  is  from  the  manure  that 
gets  into  it.  A  hair  that  falls  into  the  milk  may  look  clean,  but  it  may 
carry  small  particles  of  manure,  and  if  the  cow  has  tuberculosis  this 
manure  is  quite  likely  to  contain  the  germs  of  the  disease.  As  well  as 
being  a  strong  argument  for  healthy  cows,  this  is  an  additional  reason 
for  keeping  milk  clean — it  is  not  merely  a  matter  of  sentiment. 

Work  done  at  the  Experiment  Station  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  has  shown  that  cows,  seemingly  in  good  health  but  which  had 
reacted  to  the  tuberculin  test,  were  expelling  myriads  of  tubercle 
bacilli  from  their  bowels.  Analysis  of  milk  supplied  to  a  certain  city  dis- 
closed that  fully  one  sample  in  twenty  was  infected  with  tubercle  bacilli. 
Experimental  work  carried  on  with  butter  showed  that  the  germs  will 
remain  alive  and  virulent  in  the  ordinary  salted  butter  for  nearly  six 
months. 

Hogs  that  eat  manure  from  tuberculous  cattle  are  almost  certain  to 
become  infected.^ 

1  United  States  Department  of  Agricultiire,  Yearbook,  1908,  pp.  217-226. 


CHAPTER   XIII 


SHEEP 


305.  Types  of  Sheep.  There  are  two  more  or  less  antago- 
nistic uses  for  sheep,  just  as  there  are  for  cattle  or  horses. 
We  raise  sheep  for  wool  or  for  mutton.  The  type  of  sheep 
that  produces  the  most  valuable 
wool  (Fig.  180)  has  a  conformation 
much  Uke  that  of  a  dairy  cow.  The 
type  that  produces  the  best  mutton 
(Fig.  182)  has  much  the  same  form 
as  the  beef  animal.  It  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  improve  either  the  wool 
or  the  mutton  qualities  without 
lowering  the  other.  Our  common 
breeds  are  classified  as  follows:  The  h!ad  of  The  herd 

{American  Merino 
Rambouillet  or  French  Merino 
Delaine  Merino 
^Southdown 
Shropshire 

n.  Middle  wooled J  Hampshire  Down 

Oxford  Down 
^Dorset  Horn 
r  Cheviot 
J  Cotswold 
I  Leicester 
^Lincoln 

306.  Breeds  of  Sheep.    Merinos  are  probably  the  most 
widely  distributed  breed  of    sheep.     They  are    the    best 

(351) 


III.  Long  wooled. 


352 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


A  pair  of  American  merinos 

wool-producers.  They  yield  heavy  fleeces  of  very  fine, 
short  wool,  that  is  used  for  the  finest  and  most  expensive 
woolen  goods.  The  breed  is  small  in  size  and  lacks  the 
vullness  that  is  requisite  for  the  best  mutton  production. 
They  are  hardy  and  are  good  grazers,  and  will  thrive 
in  larger  flocks  than  will  some  of  the  other  breeds.  The 
Merinos  originated  in  Spain,  but  most  of  their  improve- 
ment has  been  accomplished  in  other  countries.  Many 
different  types  have  been  developed  in  different  countries. 
The  leading  types  are  the  American  Merino,  Delaine 
Merino,  and  Rambouillet. 


Fig.  181.     A  pair  of  Delaine  merinos 


SHEEP 


353 


Thd  American  Merinos  produce  the  finest  and  heaviest 
fleece  of  any  breed  of  sheep.  They  are  small  in  size,  and 
do  not  produce  a  high  quaUty  of  mutton.  Their  bodies 
are  covered  with  large  folds  of  skin.  These  wrinkles  are 
an  inconvenience  in  shearing.  They  are  not  very  prolific. 
The  average  number  of  lambs  raised  for  each  hundred 
ewes  is  very  low.  The  heavy  wool  growth  seems  to 
make  too  heavy  demands  for  the  best  reproduction. 


Fig.  182.     Shropshire  ewe 


Fig.  183.     Shropshire  ram 


Several  types  of  Delaine  Merinos  have  been  developed 
in  efforts  to  correct  the  faults  of  the  American  Merino. 
The  Delaines  are  larger  and  produce  a  better  quality  of 
mutton.  They  do  not  have  so  many  wrinkles  and  vare  more 
prolific,  but  their  wool  is  not  so  good. 

Rambouillets  were  developed  in  France.  They  are 
the  largest  Merinos  and  the  best  ones  for  mutton,  although 
they  do  not  rank  with  the  mutton  breeds.  They  are  very 
hardy  and  are  popular  on  western  ranges. 

Shropshires  are  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  mutton 
breeds.  They  have  nearly  black  faces  and  legs,  and  are 
hornless.    They  are  especially  noted  for  their  prolificacy. 


354 


ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  184.     Dorset-horn  ram 


Nearly  12,000  ewes  in  England  in  a  year  raised  an  average 
of  168  lambs  for  each  hundred  ewes.  They  are  especially 
adapted  to  good  lands  and  good  pastures,  and  are  very 
popular  in  the  East  and 

Middle  West.  On  the  ^^^^^^^^^-r—"-^'"— 
range  they  are  not  so 
hardy  as  the  Merino 
breeds.  Next  to  the  Me- 
rinos, they  are  the  most 
numerous  breed  in 
America. 

Southdowns  are  an- 
other popular  mutton 
breed.  They  have  gray- 
ish brown  or  reddish  brown  legs  and  faces  and  are 
smaller  than  the  Shropshires.  Their  wool  is  finer  and 
more  valuable,  but    they  are  less  proUfic.     Other  breeds 

of  the  same  general  class 
that  are  raised  in  America 
are  the  Oxford  Down  and 
the  Hampshire  Down. 

The  Horned  Dorset  has 
attracted  considerable  at- 
tention in  sections  where 
winter  lambs  are  produced, 
as  it  is  claimed  that  a 
large  proportion  of  its 
lambs  will  be  early  enough 
The   wool   is   not    of    the   best 


Fig.  185.     Cotswold  ewe 


for   the   winter   market, 
quality. 

Cotswold   is    the    only    coarse-wooled    breed   that    has 


SHEEP  355 

attained  much  prominence  in  America.  About  twenty- 
five  years  ago,  it  was  prominent,  but  the  Shropshires 
are  now  most  numerous  in  the  sections  to  which  it  is 
adapted. 

307.  Sheep  Industry  in  America.  Sheep-growing  first 
developed  in  eastern  United  States.  Large  numbers  of 
Merino  sheep  were  kept  for  wool-production.  As  the 
number  of  sheep  on  the  ranges  of  North  and  South  America 
and  Australia  increased,  and  as  the  cotton-production 
increased,  the  price  of  wool  became  so  low  that  there 
was  little  profit  in  the  sheep  industry,  even  on  the  ranges. 
Most  farmers  in  the  eastern  states  went  out  of  the  sheep 
business.  Later,  the  demand  for  mutton  increased,  and 
we  now  have  an  increasing  number  of  sheep  in  the  East  and 
Middle   West. 

Two  of  the  obstacles  that  have  stood  in  the  way  of 
the  sheep  industry  are  fencing  and  dogs.  Many  farmers, 
who  might  otherwise  keep  sheep,  do  not  do  so  because 
their  farms  are  fenced  for  cattle.  Others  fear  the  dog 
nuisance,  not  only  for  the  actual  loss  of  sheep,  but  because 
of  the  annoyance  that  such  troubles  cause.  The  present 
prices  of  fencing  materials  make  it  possible  to  fence  the 
sheep  in  and  the  dogs  out,  so  that  there  is  little  danger. 

There  are  many  farms  in  the  eastern  states  that  are 
naturally  adapted  to  sheep-production.  These  farms 
promise  to  be  the  center  of  a  large  sheep  industry  in  the 
future.  There  are  many  hill  farms  in  these  sections  that 
are  now  being  little  used,  and  that  can  be  made  profitable 
sheep  farms  as  soon  as  the  western  ranges  are  unable  to 
supply  the  demand  for  sheep.  One  of  the  obstacles  in 
the  way  is  the  small  size  of  the  farms.  It  will  usually  require 


356  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

several  of  the  present  farms  to  make  one  that  is  large  enough 
for  sheep-production. 

COLLATERAL  READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.: 

96.  Raising  Sheep  for  Mutton. 

119.  Establishing  a  Flock  of  Mutton  Sheep,  pp.  23,  24. 
159.  Scab  in  Sheep. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  592-633. 
Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  by  C.  S.  Plumb.   Pp.  333-454. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

SWINE 

Hogs  rank  second  in  total  number  and  third  in  total 
value  of  farm  animals  in  the  United  States,  being  exceeded 
in  number  by  cattle,  and  in  value  by  horses  and  cattle. 
The  totals  in  1908  were  as  follows:^ 


Horses  and  mules. 

Cattle 

Swine    

Sheep      


Number 


23,816,000 
71,267,000 
56,084,000 
54,631,000 


Value 


$2,284,469,000 

1,495,995,000 

339,030,000 

211,736,000 


308.  Distribution  of  Hogs.  Hogs  are  almost  universally 
distributed  as  scavengers  to  eat  the  waste  material  from 
the  farm  and  the  kitchen.  The  commercial  production  is 
centered  in  dairy  sections  and  in  the  corn-belt.  In  dairy 
sections  that  produce  cheese  or  butter,  the  hogs  are  a 
by-product,  being  fed  on  the  whey  and  skimmed  milk. 
In  the  corn-belt,  they  are  a  by-product  of  fattening  steers. 
Here  they  eat  the  corn  that  is  wasted  by  the  steers  and 
that  which  the  steers  do  not  digest.  Large  numbers  are 
also  grown  in  the  corn-belt  independently  of  other  stock. 

It  is  cheaper  to  ship  hogs  than  to  ship  the  corn  that  is 
required  to  grow  the  hogs.  About  five  to  six  pounds  of 
corn  are  required  to  grow  a  pound  of  hog.  The  weight  to  be 
shipped  is,  therefore,  much  less  if  the  corn  is  fed.    If  alfalfa 

^United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  Yearbook,  1908 
(357) 


358 


ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 


or  other  coarse  forage  is  fed,  the  difference  in  the  cost  of 
shipment  of  the  feed  and  of  the  animal  is  still  greater. 
The  same  principle  appUes  in  the  production  of  beef,  but 
does  not  apply  to  milk,  because  the  latter  product  is 
perishable.  The  farther  corn  has  to  be  shipped,  the  more 
important  this  matter  becomes.  We  expect  to  see  a  city's 
milk-supply  produced  near  the  city,  but  expect  to  see  the 
meat-supply  produced  where  feed  is  cheapest.  The  follow- 
ing table  shows  that  this  is  what  occurs: 


Illinois  .  . 
Iowa  .  .  . 
Nebraska 


Bushels  of 
corn,  1908 


298,620,000 
287,456,000 
205,767,000 


Value  per  bushel 
on  the  farm 


$0  57 
52 
51 


Number  of 

cattle  other  than 

milch  cows 


2,056,000 
3,842,000 
3,200,000 


Number  of 
swine 


4,438,000 
7,908,000 
3,904,000 


Nebraska  produces  about  two-thirds  as  much  corn  as 
Illinois,  but  produces  nearly  as  many  hogs  and  a  half 
more  beef  cattle.  Iowa  has  less  corn  than  IlUnois,  but 
has  about  twice  as  many  hogs  and  beef  cattle.  This  shows 
that  meat-production  is  most  important  where  corn  is 
cheapest. 

309.  Breeds  of  Hogs.  The  most  important  breeds  in 
the  United  States  are  Poland-China,  Berkshire,  Duroc- 
Jersey  and  Chester- White.  Breeds  of  less  importance 
are  the  Cheshire,  Large  Yorkshire,  Tamworth,  Victoria, 
Small  Yorkshire,  Hampshire,  Essex  and  Suffolk. 

Nearly  all  of  our  important  breeds  of  cattle  and  horses 
come  from  Europe,  but  all  of  the  more  important  breeds 
of  swine,  except  Berkshire,  originated  in  this  country. 
The  Poland-China  were  developed  in  Ohio;  Duroc- Jersey 
in  New  York  and  New  Jersey;  Chester- White  in  Pennsyl- 


SWINE 


359 


Fig.   186.     The  lard  type.    A  Poland-China 

vania;  Cheshire  in  New  York;  Victoria  in  Indiana;  Hamp- 
shire probably  in  Kentucky.  All  of  the  other  breeds 
mentioned  were  developed  in  England. 

One  of  the  chief  reasons  for  the  development  of  our 
own  breeds  of  swine  is  that  the  English  breeds  are  not  the 


Fig.   187.     The  bacon  type.    A  large  Yorkshire 

best  for  feeding  on  corn.  Corn  is  relatively  rich  in  oil  and 
starch,  and  deficient  in  protein.  This  leads  to  the  produc- 
tion of  fat  hogs — ^the  lard  type.  In  England,  a  leaner  type 
is  more  profitable — the  bacon  type.    Their  mixed  foodS;, 


360  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

containing  a  greater  proportion  of  protein,  make  the  pro- 
duction of  the  bacon  type  profitable.  This  type  is  also 
much  grown  in  Canada,  where  the  Large  Yorkshire  is  one 
of  the  most  important  breeds.  Relatively  few  of  the  bacon 
type  of  hogs  are  grown  in  the  United  States. 

The  following  points  will  aid  in  distinguishing  the 
breeds:  The  Poland-China  are  black  with  white  markings, 
and  have  drooping  ears.  The  Berkshire  are  about  the  same 
color,  but  have  erect  ears.  The  Essex  are  black,  with  erect 
ears,  but  have  no  white  markings.  The  Hampshire  are 
black  with  a  belt  of  white  around  the  body.  The  Large 
Yorkshire,  Small  Yorkshire,  Cheshire  and  Suffolk  are  all 
white,  with  erect  ears.  The  Chester- White  are  white, 
with  drooping  ears.  The  Duroc-Jersey  are  cherry-red, 
chestnut  or  yellowish  red,  with  drooping  ears. 

The  white  breeds  are  more  prominent  in  the  northeastern 
states  and  Canada.  They  are  said  to  be  less  desirable  in 
the  intense  sunshine  of  the  corn-belt.  Poland-China  are 
the  most  numerous  breed  in  the  corn-belt.  The  chief  com- 
plaint against  them  is  that  they  are  so  fine-boned  as  to 
lack  in  vigor,  and  that  they  do  not  raise  large  enough 
litters  of  pigs.  The  Duroc-Jersey  have  been  increasing 
in  numbers,  and  are  said  to  be  more  prolific  and  more 
vigorous  than  the  Poland-China.  Both  of  these  breeds 
and  the  Berkshire  are  popular. 

310.  Care  of  Hogs.  Not  many  years  ago,  the  common 
practice  was  to  keep  hogs  in  small  pens  that  of  necessity 
became  muddy.  This  practice  is  still  common  in  many 
sections  of  the  country.  But,  where  hogs  are  grown  in 
large  numbers,  the  importance  of  pastures  is  now  recognized. 
For  cheap  production  of  pork,  as  well  as  for  the  health 


QUESTIONS  AND   COLLATERAL  READING  361 

of  the  hogs,  there  should  be  plenty  of  pasture.  When  corn 
is  the  only  grain  feed,  the  pasture  is  also  of  value  in  fur- 
nishing the  mineral  matter  that  the  corn  lacks.  The 
more  succulent  plants  are  better  than  the  drier  grasses. 
Alfalfa  is  the  most  popular  pasture  for  hogs.  Alfalfa  hay 
is  also  fed  in  winter. 

311.  Hog  Diseases.  Hog  cholera  is  the  most  serious 
obstacle  in  the  way  of  hog-production.  It  is  particularly 
serious  in  the  corn-belt.  Entire  herds  of  hogs  are  often 
lost  with  it  in  a  few  weeks.  Recent  experiments  have 
shown  that  the  disease  may  be  prevented  by  vaccination.^ 

Tuberculosis  is  also  a  serious  disease.  It  is  often  con- 
tracted from  infected  milk.  (For  a  discussion  of  the  extent 
of  this  disease  and  its  prevention,  see  page  337.) 

^United   States    Department  of   Agriculture    Yearbook.   1908,    pp.    34, 
321-332. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  most  numerous  breeds  of  hogs  in  your  county? 
Which  breeds  are  increasing  in  numbers? 

2.  What  are  the  common  feeds  for  hogs  in  your  community? 
About  how  much  of  each  is  fed  per  day  for  each  1,000  pounds  of  live 
weight?  Find  the  nutritive  ratio  of  this  ration  and  compare  with  that 
given  in  Appendix,  Table  7.  For  the  production  of  the  lard  type  of  hog, 
the  ration  does  not  need  to  contain  so  much  protein  as  the  standard. 

3.  What  is  the  price  of  corn  and  of  hogs?  Find  the  comparative 
price  per  pound  of  each.  Will  it  pay  better  to  feed  the  corn  or  to  sell  it? 

COLLATERAL   READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos. : 

100.  Hog-Raising  in  the  South. 
272.  A  Successful  Hog  and  Seed  Corn  Farm. 
133.  Profitable  Crops  for  Pigs,  pp.  27-29. 
296.  Grinding  Corn  for  Hogs,  p.  25. 


362  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

329.  Hogging  Off  Com,  pp.  21,  22. 

315.  Supplements  to  Com  in  Hog  Feeding,  pp.  25-29. 

Forage  Crops  for  Hogs. — Bulletins :     No.  56,  pp.   6,    7; 
No.  84,  pp.  18,  19;  No.  97,  pp.  15,  16;  No.  124,  pp. 
25-27;  No.  305,  pp.  24,  25;  No.  331,  pp.  1-24;  No. 
334,  pp.  20-22. 
Tankage  and  Bone  Meal  for  Hogs. — Bulletins:    No.  169, 
pp.  29,  30;  No.  296,  pp.  21-24;  No.  315,  pp.  28-30. 
Feeding.— Bulletins:   No.  22;  No.  92,  pp.  20,  21;  No.  97, 
pp.  13-15;  No.  133,  pp.  26,  27;  No.  144,  pp.  24,  25; 
No.  210,  pp.  30,  31;  No.  251,  pp.  30-32;  No.  305, 
pp.  25-28. 
Hog    Cots.— Bulletins:    No.    273,  pp.    11-14;    No.    296, 
pp.  27-29;  No.  334,  pp.  31,  32. 
87.  Fecundity  of  Swine,  pp.  23,  24. 
222.  Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Swine,  pp.  24-32. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  by  C.  S.  Plumb.   Pp.  467-554. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  644-681,  and  Index 


Figs.  188,  189.    Barred  Plymouth  Rocks,— a  general-purpose  breed. 


.PiqbI  190,  191.   Single-comb  White  Leghorns,— an  egg  breed. 


CHAPTER   XV 
POULTRY 

312.  Importance  of  Poultry.  Poultry-raising  is  often 
looked  upon  as  a  small  business.  But  we  are  likely  to 
underestimate  the  value  of  farm  products  because  they 
are  scattered  over  so  wide  a  territory  and  the  proceeds 
are  distributed  among  so  many  people.  A  much  smaller 
industry  that  is  concentrated  gives  the  impression  of 
being  larger.  The  total  value  of  all  poultry  raised  in  the 
United  States  in  1899  was  $137,000,000  and  the  value  of 
the  eggs  produced  was  $144,000,000.  The  total  value  of 
these  products  was  nearly  equal  to  the  combined  value 
of  all  the  iron,  coal,  gold  and  silver  that  were  mined  in 
that  year.^  Yet  the  value  of  the  poultry  products  is  only 
sixth  among  the  agricultural  products,  being  exceeded 
by  corn,  beef  cattle,  dairy  products,  cotton,  wheat  and 
swine. 

313.  Breeds  of  Poultry.  Turkeys,  geese,  ducks,  pigeons 
and  squabs  are  of  considerable  value,  but  are  of  small 
importance  when  compared  with  chickens.  The  varieties 
of  chickens  are  almost  innumerable.  There  are  four  gen- 
eral classes: 

(1)  The  meat  breeds,  or  Asiatic  class — Brahma,  Cochin 
and  Langshan. 

^Twelfth  Census  of  the  United  States:  Coal,  $160,000,000;  gold,  $33,- 
000,000;  silver,  $66,000,000;  iron  ore,  $33,000,000.  A  large  amount  of 
jKJultry  products  consumed  on  farms  is  omitted  from  the  census  reports, 
as  is  the  value  of  such  products  produced  in  villages. 

(363) 


364  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

(2)  The  general-purpose  breeds,  or  American  class — 
Plymouth  Rock,  Wyandotte,  Rhode  Island  Red,  etc. 

(3)  The  egg  breeds,  or  Mediterranean  class — Leghorn, 
Minorca,  Black  Spanish. 

(4)  The  ornamental  breeds — Polish,  Game,  Bantam,  etc. 

The  meat  breeds  correspond  to  the  beef  breeds  of  cattle. 
The  egg  breeds  are  smaller  and  more  active,  and  corre- 
spond to  the  milk  breeds  of  cattle.  The  meat  breeds  origi- 
nated in  Asia.  They  are  very  superior  for  meat-production, 
but  are  such  poor  layers  that  they  have  never  become 
very  popular  in  America. 

There  are  a  number  of  varieties  of  Plymouth  Rocks, — 
Barred,  Buff,  White,  etc.  Of  the  Wyandottes,  the  chief 
varieties  are  White,  Silver  and  Buff.  All  of  these  origi- 
nated in  America  and  all  lay  brown  eggs. 

The  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  is  the  most  widely  dis- 
tributed and  most  popular  variety  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  large  enough  for  fair  meat-production  and  is  very 
good  for  egg-production,  nearly  equal  to  the  Leghorn. 
It  is  a  quiet  breed  and  so  causes  little  trouble  on  the  farm. 
The  hens  will  incubate  their  own  eggs,  which  is  an  essen- 
tial consideration  where  incubators  are  not  used. 

The  White  variety  is  the  most  numerous  of  the  Wyan- 
dottes. It  is  much  hke  the  Plymouth  Rock  in  form 
and  utility. 

The  White  Leghorns  are  the  most  popular  of  the  egg 
breeds.  They  are  medium-sized,  active  birds.  They  lay 
white  eggs,  and  large  numbers  of  them.  They  are  a  non- 
setting  breed,  and  are  more  difficult  to  control,  so  that 
they  are  not  so  popular  as  the  Plymouth  Rocks  or  Wyan- 
dottes on  farms  where  only  a  few  hens  are  kept.    They 


POULTRY  365 

are  most  numerous  in  the  territory  surrounding  New  York 
City,  where  white  eggs  sell  for  more  than  brown  ones. 
In  Boston,  the  brown  eggs  are  more  in  demand. 

314.  Feeding  of  Poultry.  There  are  a  number  of  points 
in  which  the  poultry  ration  should  differ  from  that  of  other 
farm  animals.  Chickens  require  over  twice  as  much  feed 
as  is  required  for  the  same  weight  of  cattle,  and  this  food 
must  be  largely  grain.  This  makes  the  requirement  of 
net  nutrients  much  more  than  twice  that  of  cattle.  The 
nutritive  ratio  should  also  be  very  narrow,  as  the  high 
protein  product  requires  a  feed  high  in  protein.  Laying 
hens  require  one  pound  of  protein  for  about  4.8  pounds 
of  carbohydrates.    (See  Appendix,  Table  7.) 

About  one-third  of  the  grain  ration  should  be  ground 
and  fed  dry  in  a  hopper,  the  whole  grain  being  scattered 
in  straw,  so  that  the  birds  will  have  to  exercise  in  getting 
it.  The  ground  feed  should  be  at  hand  during  the  after- 
noon, so  that  the  fowls  can  eat  as  much  of  it  as  they  care 
to  after  they  have  eaten  the  whole  grain  which  is  scattered 
in  the  Utter.  If  fed  in  this  way,  they  will  not  overeat  on 
dry  ground  feed.  The  exact  mixtures  will  vary  with  the 
section  of  the  country. 

It  is  essential  for  good  results  that  chickens  have  some 
animal  food.  This  may  consist  of  the  insects  that  they 
catch,  of  meat  scrap,  or  skimmed  milk.  About  10  to  15 
per  cent  of  the  ration  should  be  animal  food. 

Egg-production  requires  large  amounts  of  lime,  so  that 
this  must  be  supplied  in  some  form.  Cracked  oyster- 
shells  are  commonly  used.  Since  the  hen  has  no  teeth, 
grit  must  be  available  for  grinding  the  food.  Usually  the 
oyster-shells  do  not  furnish  as  much  grit  as  is  desirable. 


366  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

An  abundant  supply  of  fresh  water  is  essential  for  hens, 
as  it  is  for  all  other  farm  animals. 

A  combination  that  has  proved  satisfactory  at  the 
Maine  Experiment  Station  for  laying  hens,  is:  Four  quarts 
of  corn,  two  quarts  of  wheat,  two  quarts  of  oats  for  the 
whole  grain  per  day  for  100  Plymouth  Rock  hens.  The  dry 
mash  was  made  of  a  mixture  of  200  pounds  of  wheat  bran 
and  100  pounds  each  of  corn  meal,  wheat  middUngs,  gluten 
meal,  linseed  meal,  and  meat  scrap.  This  is  fed  in  the  hopper 
as  mentioned  above. 

The  following  mixtures  are  used  at  the  New  York 
State  College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University: 

Young  chickens  from  three  weeks  old  to  maturity. — 
Grain  mixture:  200  pounds  of  finely  cracked  corn,  300 
pounds  of  cracked  wheat.  Ground  feed:  400  pounds  corn 
meal,  400  pounds  wheat  bran,  400  pounds  wheat  middlings, 
400  pounds  meat  scrap,  100  pounds  oil  meal,  25  pounds 
bone  flour. 

Pullets  and  laying  hens. — Grain  ration:  200  pounds 
cracked  corn,  200  pounds  wheat,  100  pounds  oats  (for 
pullets  use  300  pounds  of  wheat).  Ground  feed:  600  pounds 
corn  meal,  600  pounds  wheat  middUngs,  300  pounds 
wheat  bran,  500  pounds  meat  scrap,  100  pounds  oil  meal, 
100  pounds  alfalfa  meal. 

Fattening  ration:  All  ground  feed,  100  pounds  corn 
meal,  100  pounds  wheat  middUngs,  100  pounds  oat  flour, 
30  pounds  meat  scrap. 

315.  Poultry  Houses.  The  details  of  construction  are 
given  in  some  of  the  references  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 
There  are  a  few  general  principles  that  apply  in  all  regions. 

Sunlight  should  reach  every  part  of  the  house,  if  pos- 


POULTRY 


367 


sible.  If  the  south  side  is  nearly  all  made  up  of  windows  and 
open  front,  this  purpose  will  be  accomplished.  The  win- 
dows should  be  high,  so  that  the  light  can  reach  the  back 
part  of  the  house.    The  house  shown  in  Fig.  192  has  an 


Fig.  192.     Cross-section  of  a  hen-house 

open  front  that  admits  sunlight  and  air.  It  can  be  closed 
by  lowering  the  curtain.  In  summer,  the  same  curtain 
serves  as  an  awning.  The  window  admits  light  at  the 
few  times  when  the  curtain  is  closed. 

The  floor  should  always  be  dry.  This  is  best  accom- 
plished, as  shown  in  Fig.  192,  by  using  an  elevated  floor 
underlaid  by  gravel  or 
cinders.  Cement  floors  do 
not  need  to  be  over  two 
inches  thick  for  hen-houses, 
as  there  is  little  weight  to 
support.  Such  a  floor  is 
usually    not     expensive. 

u       1 J       t-  ^Q'  193.    Front  view  of  hen-house.   Crosa- 

Each     hen     should      have  section  shown  in  Fig.  192 


368  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

about  five  square  feet  of  floor  space.  The  height  does 
not  need  to  be  great.  The  only  reasons  for  having  a  house 
more  than  a  few  feet  high  are  so  that  the  sunlight  can 
enter,  and  so  that  persons  can  walk  through  the  houses. 

Hens  need  plenty  of  fresh  air.  If  the  house  is  tight, 
so  that  the  wind  will  not  blow  through  it,  and  with  the 
platform  under  the  roosts,  as  shown  in  Fig.  192,  the  cloth 
curtain  will  not  often  need  to  be  closed.  For  very  cold 
weather  there  is  a  second  cloth  curtain  that  comes  down 
in  front  of  the  roosts. 

All  interior  parts,  as  roosts,  nests,  etc.,  should  be  port- 
able, so  that  they  may  be  quickly  removed  for  disinfecting 
the  house. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Make  a  sketch  of  a  hen  house  adapted  to  your  region. 

2.  What  diseases  of  poultry  are  most  common  in  the  section?  What 
is  done  to  control  them? 

3.  From  feeds  used  in  the  region,  prepare  a  ration  for  100  laying 
hens,  each  averaging  3.5  pounds  in  weight.  (See  Appendix,  Tables 
7  and  8.) 

4.  How  are  eggs  sometimes  tested  by  egg-dealers? 

LABORATORY   EXERCISES 
79.  The  Parts  of  an  Egg.l 

Materials. — One  lens,  and  facilities  for  boiling  eggs.  Each  pupil 
should  be  supplied  with  two  eggs,  if  possible;  have  one  with  a  light 
shell,  the  other  with  a  dark  shell,  two  saucers;  one  drawing  pencil; 
one  box  of  colored  lead-pencils,  and  a  knife. 

An  egg-tester  can  be  made  by  placing  a  lamp  in  a  box  with  a  hole, 
slightly  smaller  than  the  egg,  cut  through  the  side.  Or,  the  egg  may  be 
held  up  to  a  similar  hole  in  the  curtain  of  a  darkened  room.  In  either 
case,  look  through  the  egg  toward  the  light. 

^Adapted  from  J.  E.  Rice,  in  the  Cornell  Rural  School  Leaflet,  Vol.  1 
No.  2. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES  369 

(1)  Strength  of  the  egg  shell.  —  Let  each  student  hold  a  hard- 
shelled  egg  between  the  clasped  hands,  the  ends  of  the  egg  in  the  hollow 
of  the  hand,  and  try  to  break  it. 

Observe  the  great  strength  of  the  egg,  due  to  the  arrangement  of 
the  particles  of  the  shell  in  an  arch  similar  to  the  stones  or  bricks  in 
the  arch  of  a  bridge. 

(2)  The  contents  of  an  uncooked  egg.— (a)  Break  a  fresh,  uncooked 
egg  in  a  saucer  by  separating  the  shell  in  the  middle. 

Observe  the  ''germinal  disc,"  which  appears  as  a  light-colored  spot 
usually  to  be  found  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  yolk. 

The  germinal  disc  contains  the  life  principle  of  the  egg.  Being 
on  the  upper  surface,  it  remains  in  close  contact  with  the  source  of  heat 
during  natural  incubation. 

(b)  Note  the  ''chalaza,"  or  the  whitish  cords  of  denser  albumen 
on  the  sides  of  the  yolk  toward  either  end  of  the  egg.  These  cords  of 
denser  albumen  serve  to  keep  the  yolk  properly  suspended  within  the 
albumen.  Thus  the  chick  which  develops  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
yolk  is  protected  from  injury,  if,  through  rough  handling,  it  should 
come  in  contact  with  the  shell. 

(c)  Note  the  transparent,  watery  appearance  of  the  albumen 
(white  of  the  egg). 

The  albumen  supplies  the  food  by  which  the  chick  grows  within 
the  shell,  in  liquid  form. 

(d)  Examine  the  shell  and  note  the  air-space  usually  found  near 
the  large  end.  Observe  the  two  tough  membranes,  best  seen  at  the 
air-space   where   the   membranes   separate. 

The  air-space  furnishes  a  readily  available  supply  of  fresh  air  to  the 
embryo  chick.  The  two  membranes  prevent  the  too  rapid  evaporation 
of  moisture  through  the  pores  of  the  shell,  but  allow  oxygen  to  enter 
the  egg  and  carbon  dioxid  to  pass  out. 

(e)  By  placing  a  section  of  the  shell  under  the  lens,  indentations 
or  pores  in  the  shell  may  be  observed. 

These  thinner  parts  permit  the  gases  to  pass  through  the  shell  more 
readily.  If  the  pores  of  the  shell  are  closed  by  oil,  varnish,  dirt  or 
broken  egg,  the  chick  will  be  smothered. 

(/)  Note  the  pigment  of  the  shell,  which  gives  to  each  egg  its  char- 
acteristic color. 

Observe  how  the  first  eggs  laid  for  a  brood  are  more  pronounced 
in  color,  and  how  the  color  pigment  decreases  with  each  egg  that  is 
laid,  due  to  exhaustion  of  the  supply. 


370  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

(3)  The  stnicture  nf  a  boiled  egg.  —  Crack  the  large  end  of  a 
hard-boiled  egg  carefully.  Remove  the  shell,  piece  by  piece,  to  avoid 
tearing  the  shell  membrane. 

(a)  Observe  the  air-space  and  the  two  membranes,  which  are 
separated  with  difficulty.  Note  that  the  outer  membrane  is  the  thicker 
and  tougher. 

(6)  Cut  the  egg  lengthwise  through  the  middle.  Observe  the 
lighter-colored,  flask-shaped  center  of  the  yolk,  and  the  darker  yolk 
arranged  around  it  in  concentric  layers.  Note  the  "germinal  vesicle," 
or  "germinal  disc,"  at  the  upper  part  of  the  hght  yolk.  Observe  that 
the  yolk  is  at  one  side  and  not  in  the  center  of  the  white  of  the  egg. 
Note  also  that  the  germinal  disc  is  on  the  upper  side  of  the  yolk.  This 
is  because  the  yolk  is  lighter  in  weight  than  the  albumen,  and  hence 
floats.  The  germinal  disc  on  the  surface  of  the  white  yolk  is  lighter 
than  the  dark  yolk. 

Snyder  gives  the  chemical  composition  of  the  dry  substance  of  the 
inside  of  the  egg  as:  p^^^^.^  p^^ 

Albumen  (white  of  the  egg) 88.92  .53 

Yolk 20.62  64.43 

It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a  large  amount  of  fat  in  the  yolk  and 
almost  no  fat  in  the  albumen.  Fat  is  lighter  than  albumen,  hence  rises 
to  the  surface.    This  may  be  observed  in  practice  by  holding  a  fresh 


COH^-^"' 


Fig.  194.     Section  of  an  egg 


egg  in  front  of  an  egg-tester  and  noting  the  tendency  of  the  yolk  to 
float  upward. 

This  tendency  of  the  yolk  to  float  to  the  surface  makes  it  necessary 
to  turn  eggs  frequently  when  they  are  kept  for  hatching,  otherwise  the 


COLLATERAL   READING  371 

yolk  will  rise  until  the  germinal  disc  comes  in  contact  with  the  shell 
membrane.  It  will  then  become  dry  by  evaporation  and  adhere  to 
the  membrane.     If  the  egg  is  then  turned  the  germ  will  be  killed. 

(4)  Make  a  drawing  of  the  longitudinal  section  of  the  egg,  showing: 
(a)  The  shell  and  its  pores.  (6)  The  two  shell  membranes  turned 
back  from  the  shell,  (c)  The  air-space,  (d)  The  three  layers  of  albu- 
men, (e)  The  vitelline  membrane  surrounding  the  yolk.  (/)  The 
vitellus  contained  within  the  vitelline  membrane,  (g)  The  white  yolk 
and  the  dark  yolk,  showing  its  concentric  layers,  (h)  The  germinal 
disc,    (i)  The  chalaza  ("hammock  cords"). 


COLLATERAL    READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.: 

287.  Poultry  Management. 
51.  Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens. 
64.  Geese  and  Ducks. 
182.  Poultry  as  Food. 
200.  Turkeys. 
225.  Turkeys,  pp.  21-25. 
236.  Incubation  and  Incubators. 
281.  Incubation,  pp.  24-28. 
309.  Incubation,  pp.  24-26. 
128.  Eggs  and  Their  Use  as  Food. 

Poultry-House    Construction. — Bulletins:    No     225,    pp. 

27-31;  No.  227,  pp.  28-32. 
Poultry  Appliances. — Bulletins:  No.  244,  pp.  25-29;  No. 

316,  pp.  30-32;  No.  317,  pp.  28-32. 
Feeding.— Bulletins:    No.  84,  pp.  19,  20;  No.  97,  pp.  16, 
17;  No.  122,pp.  25,  26;  No.  225,  pp.  26,  27;  No.  305, 
p.  28. 
122.  Weight  of  Eggs  of  Different  Breeds,  pp.  24,  25. 
114.  Floor  Space  Necessary  per  Hen,  pp.  18,  19. 

Preserving  Eggs— No.  103,  pp.  17,  18;  No.  273,  pp.  17-19; 
No.  296,  pp.  29-31. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  525-587,  and 
Index. 


CHAPTER   XVI 
FARM  MANAGEMENT 

316.  What  is  Farm  Management.  It  is  not  sufficient 
that  a  farmer  raise  large  crops  or  fine  animals,  or  that 
his  farm  appear  attractive.  He  must  so  organize  his  busi- 
ness into  a  single  unit  that  it  will  pay  as  a  whole.  He  must 
see  that  his  personal  and  household  expenses  do  not  exceed 
his  net  income.  He  must  have  a  sufficient  knowledge  of 
business  deaUngs  so  that  he  can  conduct  his  transactions 
in  a  business-like  way.  The  study  of  this  class  of  questions 
is  called  farm  management.  Some  of  the  details  that 
each  prospective  farmer  must  consider  are: 

With  my  capital  and  personal  quahfications,  where 
shall  I  locate? 

What  type  of  farming  shall  I  take  up? 

Shall  I  buy  or  rent? 

To  what  extent  may  I  safely  borrow? 

What  farm  shall  I  choose? 

How  shall  I  arrange  the  fields,  buildings  and  fences? 

What  system  of  farming  shall  I  follow? 

What  stock  and  equipment  shall  I  buy,  and  how  much 
will  they  cost? 

How  shall  I  secure  labor  and  how  manage  it? 

What  records  and  accounts  shall  I  keep? 

What  shall  I  sell  and  where  and  how  shall  I  sell  it? 

What  income  may  I  expect? 

How  will  this  compare  with  other  occupations? 

(372) 


FARM   MANAGEMENT  373 

These  and  many  more  similar  questions  must  be 
answered  by  the  successful  farmer.  He  may  not  formulate 
the  questions,  but  he  considers  them,  nevertheless. 

It  is  manifestly  impossible  to  consider  all  these  ques- 
tions in  a  book  of  this  size.  Only  the  choice  of  a  farm, 
the  farm  labor  question  and  farm  accounts  will  be  consid- 
ered, and  these  but  briefly. 

THE  CHOICE  OF  A  FARM 

The  most  important  business  transaction  that  a  farmer 
makes  is  the  purchase  of  a  farm.  The  score  card  on  page 
385  gives  some  of  the  points  that  need  to  be  considered 
before  purchasing.  There  are  so  many  points  that  one  is 
Ukely  to  forget  some  unless  he  has  a  list  of  them.  While 
discussing  these  points,  some  other  questions  may  be 
considered,  as  the  arrangement  of  fields. 

317.  Size  of  Farms.  If  one  has  sufficient  capital,  he 
should  not  buy  too  small  a  farm.  The  exact  size  will 
vary  with  the  type  of  farming.  Investigations  in  New 
York  have  shown  that  for  general  farms  and  dairy  farms 
those  farmers  who  have  about  200  acres  make  much  more 
than  those  with  smaller  areas.  The  most  profitable  apple 
farms  also  average  larger  than  the  smaller  ones,  109  acres 
being  the  average  size  of  a  number  of  profitable  ones,  and 
89  acres  the  average  size  of  less  profitable  ones. 

There  are  a  number  of  reasons  why  the  man  with  a 
fair-sized  farm  has  an  advantage.  There  are  many  farm 
operations  that  require  two  or  more  men  for  economical 
work.  The  small  farm  needs  as  much  machinery  as  a 
large  one.    Either  it  must  be  under-equipped  or  else  the 


374  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

machinery  will  not  be  used  to  good  advantage.  Idle  ma- 
chinery means  lost  money.  A  small  farm  also  necessitates 
too  small  fields,  and  these  require  much  more  time  for 
tilling  and  more  fencing,  for  the  area.  The  larger  farm 
gives  a  chance  to  make  a  profit  from  the  labor  of  more 
men,  if  their  labor  is  well  directed. 

These  remarks  do  not  apply  when  we  are  considering 
the  very  large  farm.  In  this  case,  there  must  be  a  manager 
who  does  not  do  field  work,  and  his  salary  must  be  paid. 
With  such  establishments,  the  interest  of  the  men  is  usu- 
ally not  kept  up,  and  this  alone  is  usually  sufficient  to 
cause  a  loss.  The  most  efficient  and  most  profitable  farm 
is  usually  one  where  the  owner  works  with  the  men,  and 
has  as  many  men  working  as  he  is  able  to  manage  without 
having  to  stop  work  himself.  By.  working  with  the  men, 
the  amount  accomplished  is  often  doubled. 

318.  Shape  and  Location  of  Fields.  The  shape  of  fields 
has  an  important  bearing  on  the  time  required  to  till  them. 
Odd-shaped  fields  are  very  undesirable.  Narrow  fields 
or  small  fields  require  more  labor  and  more  fencing..  A 
ten-acre  field,  40  x  40  rods,  requires  40  rods  less  fence  than 
a  field  that  is  20  x  80  rods.  If  this  fence  is  kept  up  per- 
manently, it  will  probably  cost  at  least  five  to  ten  cents  per 
rod  per  year  for  depreciation  and  repairs,  depending  on  the 
kind  of  fence;  in  addition  there  is  interest  on  the  extra 
money  invested.  At  five  cents  per  rod,  the  difference  would 
be  two  dollars  per  year.  But  this  is  a  fair  rate  of  interest 
(5  per  cent)  on  $40.  The  square  field  is,  therefore,  worth 
$40  more,   or  is  worth  $4  more  per  acre.^ 

^The  value  of  a  farm  is  determined  by  its  earning  power.  It  should 
earn  a  reasonable  rate  of  interest,  here  assumed  to  be  5  per  cent  on  the 
value.  If  a  farm  earns  $2  more  per  year  every  year,  or  if  a  change  in  it 
reduces  expenses  by  $2  every  year,  the  value  of  the  land  is  %A0  more. 


FARM  MANAGEMENT  375 

The  distance  of  the  fields  from  the  barn  is  also  of  very 
great  importance  in  determining  the  value  of  the  land. 
All  the  time  that  is  lost  in  passing  back  and  forth  from 
distant  fields  must  be  charged  against  the  earning  power 
of  the  land.  If  it  costs  $1  per  acre  in  lost  time  to  go  to  a 
field,  and  if  the  interest  rate  is  5  per  cent,  then  a  field 
near  the  barn  is  worth  $20  per  acre  more. 

319.  Topography  is  usually  most  important  in  its  effects 
on  the  ease  of  cultivation  and  on  the  use  of  farm  machinery. 
If  the  land  is  too  steep,  it  interferes  with  or  may  prevent 
the  use  of  harvesters,  manure  spreaders  and  gang  plows. 
In  some  sections,  the  most  serious  results  of  steep  hill- 
sides is  the  erosion.  In  all  sections' there  is  some  loss  of 
the  productive  surface  soil.  In  many  cases  the  direction 
of  the  slope  is  important.  The  four-year  average  yield 
of  apples  in  a  township  in  western  New  York  was  43 
bushels  greater  on  easterly  than  on  westerly  slopes.^ 
The  difference  is  mostly  due  to  the  strong  west  winds. 

320.  Soils.  The  physical  properties  of  soils  are  even 
more  important  than  the  fertility.  The  expense  of  labor 
is  very  much  more  on  some  soils  than  on  others,  not  only 
because  of  the  ease  of  tillage,  but  because  of  the  number 
of  days  of  possible  labor.  If  one  can  begin  spring  work  a 
few  days  earlier  and  can  go  out  after  it  rains  a  little  more 
promptly,  it  may  make  a  number  of  acres  difference  in 
the  area  that  can  be  farmed.  The  physical  properties 
also  affect  the  possible  kinds  of  crops  and  the  danger  of 
loss  of  soil  fertility. 

The  natural  fertility  is  more  important  than  the  tem- 
porary condition,  that  is,  it  is  better  to  buy  a  soil  that  is 

iNew  York  Cornell  Bulletin  No.  226,  page  326 


376  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

naturally  rich,  but  that  is  a  little  out  of  condition,  than  it 
is  to  buy  one  that  is  naturally  poor,  but  that  has  been 
so  fertiUzed  that  it  is  temporarily  rich. 

The  drainage  and  freedom  from  stumps,  stones,  weeds 
and  waste  land  must  also  be  considered.  In  general,  one 
can  buy  a  farm  that  is  in  good  condition  cheaper  than  he 
can  improve  one  that  is  not  in  good  condition.  Cleared 
fields  do  not  often  sell  for  enough  more  to  pay  for  the  cost 
of  clearing.  Fertile  fields  do  not  often  cost  as  much  more 
than  poor  ones  as  it  would  take  to  bring  up  the  poor  land. 

321.  Neighbors.  The  neighbors  are  much  more  than  a 
social  question.  With  them  one  must  '^change  work.'' 
They  furnish  a  market  for  surplus  stock.  They  may  fur- 
nish inspiration  that  results  in  profits.  They  decidedly 
affect  the  selling  value  of  a  place. 

It  is  usually  of  great  importance  to  have  the  neighbors 
in  the  same  kind  of  business.  Good  apples  raised  out  of 
an  apple  region  do  not  sell  for  what  they  are  worth.  A 
breeder  of  Jersey  cows  will  find  marketing  difficult  if  his 
neighbors  all  raise  Holsteins.  Buyers  will  then  come  to 
the  neighborhood  for  Holsteins,  not  for  Jerseys.  Such  a 
man  had  better  move,  or  change  his  breed.  Purchasers 
always  want  to  go  to  a  neighborhood  that  is  full  of  the 
desired  article.  The  same  principle  applies  in  manufac- 
turing. Some  towns  become  centers  for  one  article,  others 
for  another.  Both  buyers  and  skilled  laborers  are  thus 
easier  to  secure.  Each  individual  contributes  to  adver- 
tising the  community,  and  in  turn  receives  the  benefit  of 
all  the  other  advertising.  If  one  develops  special  markets 
for  his  products,  all  these  points  may  not  apply;  but  they 
apply  to  most  farmers. 


FARM   MANAGEMENT  377 

322.  Improvements.  It  is  nearly  always  cheaper  to 
buy  a  farm  with  improvements  than  it  is  to  improve  one, 
provided  one  can  secure  the  buildings  and  other  improve- 
ments that  are  satisfactory.  One  exception  is  in  the  case 
of  paint.  A  coat  of  paint  nearly  always  increases  the 
selling  price  more  than  it  costs. 

323.  Other  Factors  Affecting  Farm  Values.  There  are 
a  large  number  of  other  items  of  great  importance  that 
can  only  be  mentioned  here.  Climate,  healthfulness,  dis- 
tance to  market,  roadways,  markets,  shipping  facilities, 
mail  delivery,  telephone,  churches,  schools,  granges,  water 
supply,  taxes,  and  many  more  factors,  affect  the  value  of 
the  farm  and  the  profits  that  can  be  made  from  it. 

324.  Working  Capital.  Finally,  it  must  be  said  that 
one  should,  if  possible,  have  a  fair-sized  farm,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  have  sufficient  capital  to  equip  it.  For 
most  types  of  farming,  the  equipment  and  suppUes  will 
call  for  half  as  much  money  as  is  invested  in  the  farm 
and  improvements.  For  some  kinds  of  farming,  as  truck- 
growing,  more  working  capital  is  needed,  and  for  some, 
as  grain-farming,  less  is  necessary.  One  of  the  common 
causes  of  failure  in  city  or  country  is  the  investment  of 
too  much  of  the  caoital  in  fixed  forms. 


FARM  LABOR 

If  mankind  consumed  all  that  it  produced,  there  would 
be  no  wealth.  If  a  country  is  wealthy,  it  indicates  that 
human  energy  is  used  effectively.  The  more  effectively 
labor  is  used,  the  higher-priced  it  becomes.  The  more 
efficient  farmers  become,  the  fewer  we  need.   If  one  man 


378  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

produces  more  than  formerly,  an  increased  city  popula- 
tion can  be  supported.  At  the  same  time,  the  farmers' 
wants  will  become  greater,  and  more  men  will  be  needed 
to  make  his  machinery,  pianos  and  furniture.  Cities  are, 
therefore,  a  necessary  result  of  good  farming. 

The  average  farmer  just  about  makes  farm  wages 
besides  interest  on  his  capital.  His  labor  is  his  chief  in- 
come. He  is,  therefore,  as  much  interested  in  having 
farm  labor  high  as  are  his  hired  men.  Whether  farm  labor 
is  high  or  low  makes  little  difference  with  the  farm-labor 
problem.  The  real  problem  is  to  use  help  to  a  better  ad- 
vantage than  it  is  used  by  the  average  person,  otherwise 
there  is  little  or  no  profit  in  employing  men.  If  labor  is 
cheap,  farm  products  will  also  be  cheap,  and  the  problem 
of  making  money  by  hiring  remains  exactly  the  same. 
The  man  who  does  not  use  labor  effectively  will  lose 
money  by  employing  help  whether  wages  are  high  or  low. 

One  of  the  most  important  points  in  efficient  direction 
of  labor  is  in  so  managing  it  that  there  is  work  at  all  times. 
To  do  this,  one  must  plan  ahead,  and  it  is  usually  necessary 
to  keep  lists  of  work  for  rainy  days,  lists  of  things  to  be 
brought  from  town,  etc.,  so  that  there  will  be  as  little 
lost  time  as  possible.  Machinery  repairs  and  much  work 
about  the  buildings  that  is  often  done  in  good  weather 
could  just  as  well  have  been  done  long  before  during  bad 
weather  had  it  been  thought  of. 

Hired  men  in  the  North  are  usually  looking  forward 
to  farm  ownership.  It  is  often  possible  to  interest  such 
men  in  the  plans  of  the  farm  by  discussing  plans  with  them. 
In  deaUng  with  all  human  beings,  it  is  well  to  remember 
that,  as  a  general  rule,  judicious  commendation  is  better 


FARM  MANAGEMENT  379 

than  criticism.  At  times,  criticism  is  necessary,  but  it 
should  not  be  constant  or  it  will  destroy  interest.  The 
hired  man  is  no  exception  to  the  rule. 

Some  men  are  worth  twice  as  much  as  others,  but  wages 
are  fairly  uniform.  By  paying  20  per  cent  more  one  may 
often  secure  a  man  who  is  worth  nearly  twice  as  much. 

One  of  the  means  that  has  accompUshed  most  in  the 
past  few  years  is  in  the  use  of  larger  machines  and  more 
horses  per  man.    (See  Appendix,  Table  16.) 

On  the  average,  the  value  of  staple  products  is  measured 
by  the  cost  to  produce  them.  The  world  price  of  wheat  is 
probably  very  close  to  the  cost  of  production  and  trans- 
portation. One  community  may  produce  it  at  a  loss  and 
another  make  more  than  farm  wages.  If  this  law  is  true,  a 
farmer  may  make  more  than  farm  wages  by  working  harder; 
by  locating  where  the  cost  is  below  the  average;  choosing 
a  farm  that  will  produce  out  of  proportion  to  the  cost; 
locating  near  a  market,  and  thereby  gaining  on  transpor- 
tation; increasing  the  production  out  of  proportion  to  the 
cost;  decreasing  labor  or  other  cost  without  a  proportion- 
ate decrease  in  crop;  foreseeing  future  conditions  and 
preparing  to  meet  them;  locating  where  the  standard  of 
Uving  is  higher  than  his  own. 

Many  foreigners  succeed  in  America  more  by  their 
lower  standard  of  living  than  by  any  other  means.  Studies 
in  New  York  seem  to  show  that  the  most  profitable  farms 
spend  more  than  the  less  profitable,  but  that  they  spend 
so  efficiently  as  to  get  a  greater  return  for  each  dollar 
spent.  This  is  the  way  in  which  many  of  our  most  success- 
ful American  farmers  have  succeeded — ^not  by  decreasing 
expenses,  but  by  spending  wisely. 


380  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

FARM  RECORDS  AND   ACCOUNTS 

One  of  the  most  important  questions  of  farm  manage- 
ment is  that  of  records  and  accounts.  It  is  by  studying 
the  results  of  well-kept  records  that  one  is  able  to  extend 
or  retrench  on  the  different  parts  of  the  business,  so  as  to 
make  more  money  in  the  future. 

325.  Kinds  of  Accounts  to  Keep.  Records  of  different 
cows  for  the  dairyman  have  been  discussed  under  cattle. 
The  farm  map,  showing  drainage  lines,  maps  showing 
varieties  of  trees  in  an  orchard,  etc.,  are  necessary  on 
many  farms.  If  all  business  is  not  done  on  a  cash  basis, 
it  becomes  necessary  to  keep  records  of  accounts  that  are 
owed  or  that  are  due.  It  is  also  very  desirable  to  keep  a 
record  of  the  cost  and  receipts  from  at  least  the  leading 
factors  in  the  farm  business.  An  account  may  be  kept  with 
cows,  potatoes,  poultry,  horses,  etc.,  showing  on  which 
we  are  making  or  losing  money. 

326.  Methods  of  Keeping  Accounts.  One  may  merely 
make  a  Hst  of  his  property  at  the  end  of  each  year,  with 
values.  Such  a  hst  is  called  an  inventor5^  The  difference 
between  the  inventories  at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of 
the  year  is  the  gain  or  loss.  This  is  the  most  important 
single  record  to  keep.  It  does  not  show  what  caused  the 
gain  or  loss,  but  shows  the  net  result.  A  loss  may  have  been 
due  to  large  personal  expenses,  or  to  cows  or  potatoes. 
while  all  other  sections  of  the  business  may  show  a  profit. 

In  order  to  show  where  the  gains  and  losses  occurred, 
we  must  keep  a  work  report  and  a  ledger.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  keep  any  other  books. 

A  convenient  form  of  work  report  is  ghown  on  page  381. 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


381 


1909 

Work  Report 

Man, 
hours 

Horse, 
hours 

April  1... 
April  2... 
April  2... 
April  3... 
April  3... 

Hauled  manure  to  corn  field 

Hauled  manure  to  corn  field  (Smith) .  . 

Hauled  wood  for  household  (self) 

Plowed  for  corn  (Smith) 

1 

7 
8 
8.5 

36 
16 
14 
24 

Hauled  wood  for  household  (self) 

17 

1909 

Work  Report, — Chores 

Horses 

Cows 

Poultry 

Household 

April  1 

April  2 

April  3 

Hrs.        Min. 
1          25 
1          20 
3         30 

Hrs.       Min. 

3  30 
2         30 

4  15 

Hrs.        Min. 
15 
1            15 
15 

Hrs.       Min. 
2           30 

It  combines  a  work  report  and  diary  of  farm  work.  A 
second  page  in  the  same  book  may  be  used  for  a  record  of 
the  time  spent  in  doing  chores.  At  the  end  of  the  month, 
the  total  time  is  charged  in  the  ledger  to  each  of  the 
accounts.  This  requires  very  little  time  to  keep,  and  little 
time  for  posting  the  results.  If  one  does  not  care  for  the 
diary,  the  entire  report  may  be  kept  in  the  second  form, 
adding  such  headings  as  corn  field,  orchard,  oat  field, 
potatoes,  etc. 

Two  accounts  from  a  ledger  are  given  on  pages  382  and 
383.  A  few  entries  are  made  to  show  the  method.  Ledger 
accounts  kept  in  this  way  are  complete,  so  that  no  day- 
book or  journal  is  necessary.  For  explanation  of  the  prin- 
ciples ot  accounting,  see  the  Farmer's  Business  Handbook, 
or  the  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture.  The  systems 
there  given  use  a  daybook-journal,  which  the  writer  does 
not  keep  and  does  not  consider  to  be  essential. 


382 

1909 


ELEMENTS  OE  AGRICULTURE 
Cash 


Dr. 


April    1     Amount  on  hand 

April  10     1  calf 

April  15     1  cow 

April  15     12  dozen  eggs 

April  15     3  tons  hay    

*  -t-  *  *  *  * 

April  30     2,405  pounds  milk 


$342  25 

10  00 

45  00 

2  40 

27  00 

30  06 


1909 


Cows 


Dr. 


April 
April 


April  30 
April  30 
April  30 
April  30 

1910 
March  31 


1910 
April    1 


Inventory 

1  calf,  Bessie  74983 — pure-bred  Jersey    

150  hours  labor,  April,  @.  15  cents 

40  hours  horse  labor  @>  10  cents 

Hauling  milk    

3  tons  hay,  from  hay  field 

****** 

Interest  on  capital  (average  of  inventories)  (^  5 

per  cent 

Use  of  dairy  buildings 

Balance — gain  (red  ink) 


Inventory. 


$480  00 
37  00 

22  50 
4  00 
2  40 

24  00 


25  50 
50  00 


$1,524  30 
206  16 


$1,730  46 


$530  OG 


fARM  MANAGEMENT 

1909  Ca8h 

April    7    1  calf  ($35;  express,  $2) 

April    8    Household  supplies   

April    8    Horses  shod 

April    8    70  pounds  clover  seed 

****** 

April  30    Hauling  milk  (paid  Johnson) 

April  30    Wages  for  April  (John  Smith) 


383 


Cr. 


$37  00 

3  00 

1  20 

12  00 

2  40 
30  00 

1909 


Cows 


Cr. 


April  10 

April  15 
April  30 

1910 
April    1 
April  1 


1  calf,  Delia 's,  seven-eighths  Jersey,  to  John  Doe, 

for  cash 

1  cow,  Delia,  to  James  Brown,  for  cash 

2,405  pounds  milk,  April,  @  $1.25 

****** 

Estirtiated  value  of  manure  for  year 

Inventory  (written  in  red  ink)   


$10  00 
45  00 
30  06 


120  00 
530  00 

$1,730  46 


384  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

QUESTIONS   AND   PROBLEMS 

1.  If  there  is  both  sandy  and  clay  land  in  your  community,  how 
soon  after  a  rain  can  each  be  tilled?  How  many  days  difference  is  there 
in  the  spring? 

2.  To  what  extent  does  topography  of  farms  in  the  community 
affect  erosion,  winds,  the  use  of  machinery? 

3.  How  much  more  time  will  it  take  to  raise  ten  acres  of  corn  on  a 
field  one-half  mile  from  the  buildings  than  to  raise  an  equal  area 
adjacent  to  the  buildings?  How  much  more  would  the  nearer  land  be 
worth  per  acre? 

4.  What  area  will  a  six-foot  binder  cut  during  a  harvest  period  of 
twelve  days,  working  twelve  hours  a  day?  (Obtain  estimates  from 
farmers.) 

5.  When  must  one  begin  plowing  a  40-acre  field  with  a  14-inch 
plow  in  order  to  have  it  completed  by  October  1?  (Obtain  estimates 
from  farmers.) 

6.  How  many  farmers  in  your  community  keep  accounts  to  show 
the  gain  or  loss  on  different  crops,  or  on  the  farm  business  as  a  whole? 

In  answering  the  following  questions,  study  Appendix  Tables  14-17. 

7.  Which  has  increased  more  rapidly,  the  population  or  the  area 
of  farm  land? 

8.  Has  there  been  any  decided  change  in  the  area  of  improved 
land  per  farm  during  the  past  fifty  years? 

9.  What  changes  in  the  total  value  of  farm  property  and  in  the 
value  per  farm?   In  the  value  per  acre  of  farm  land? 

10.  What  changes  in  the  value  of  farm  implements  per  farm  and 
per  acre?   Compare  with  question  No.  13. 

11.  Is  the  value  of  live  stock  per  farm  increasing  or  decreasing? 

12.  Are  the  values  of  farm  products  per  farm  and  per  acre  increas- 
ing or  decreasing? 

13.  How  are  the  number  of  acres  and  number  of  horses  per  male 
worker  changing? 

14.  Is  the  per  cent  of  rented  farms  increasing  or  decreasing?  Is 
it  increasing  in  your  community?    Why? 

15.  How  do  farm  wages  compare  with  those  formerly  paid?  Are 
the  wages  in  your  community  higher  than  in  1900?  Are  the  farmers 
more  or  less  prosperous  than  at  that  time? 

16.  How  are  the  farm  crop  yields  per  acre  and  values  per  bushel 
changing? 


LABORATORY   EXERCISES 


385 


17.  Which  crop  shows  the  most  rapid  increase  in  total  production? 

18.  How  do  the  present  prices  of  farm  animals  compare  with  those 
formerly  paid?  Which  kind  of  animals  are  increasing  in  total  number 
most  rapidly? 


LABORATORY   EXERCISES 

80.   Choice  of  a  Farm. 

Fill  out  a  score  card  like  the  following,  for  one  or  more  farms'; 
Score  Card — Economic  Value  of  Farms 


Size — 

1 .  Adapted  to  kind  of  fanning    

Fields — 

2.  Shape  and  size 

3.  Nearness  to  farmstead 

Topography — 

4.  As  affecting  ease  of  cultivation 

5.  As  affecting  production 

6.  As  affecting  loss  of  fertility • 

Fertility — 

7.  Natural , 

8.  Condition 

Physical  Properties  of  the  Soil — 

9.  As  affecting  economy  of  cultivation ) 

10.  As  affecting  number  days  of  labor j 

11.  As  affecting  loss  of  soil  fertility    

12.  As  affecting  kinds  of  possible  crops 

Drainage — 

13.  Natural ) 

14.  Artificial    j 

Condition — 

15.  Freedom  from  stumps,  stones,  weeds,  waste  land,  etc 
Climate — 

16.  As  affecting  animal-  and  crop-production 

17.  As  affecting  number  of  days  of  labor 

Healthfulness — 

18.  As  an  economic  factor 

Location — 

19.  Distance  to  market 

20.  Roadways 

21 .  Local  markets 

22.  Shipping  facilities 

23.  Neighbors  as  an  economic  factor 

24.  Labor  supply  of  neighborhood 

25.  R.  F.  D.,  telephone,  trolleys,  etc 

26.  Churches,  school,  grange,  etc.,  as  economic  factors.  . 
Taxes — 

,    27.  Per  cent  on  cash  value 


Stand- 
ard for 
a  gene- 
ral farm 


20 

30 
30 

30 
10 
20 

80 
40 


40 


40 

50 

30 

20 

40 

10 

30 

30 

10 


Points  defioieut 


386 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


Score  Card — Economic  Value  of  Farms,  Continued 


Areas  in  acres 

Price  asked 

Price  per  acre 

Price  per  acre  [excluding  waste  land]  . 

Estimated  value 

Which  farm  would  you  prefer  to  buy?  . 


Stand- 
ard for 
a  gene- 
ral farm 

Points  deficient 

Water  Supply — 

40 

10 
60 
60 
30 
20 

Improvements — 

29.  Site  of  farmstead 

31.  Other  buildings  .                                   

Additional  Scores  for — 
34 

Total  score  . . 

— 

Name 


Date 


DIRECTIONS 

If  the  points  are  not  properly  distributed  for  the  kind  of  farming  to  be  followed, 
assign  what  you  consider  to  be  correct.  The  total  need  not  be  exactly  1,000. 

No  points  are  assigned  for  climate.  This  should  be  considered  when  judging 
farms  in  different  regions  or  at  different  altitudes,  or  when  topography  or  proximity 
to  water  make  a  difference  in  the  chmate  of  the  farms  that  are  being  compared. 

The  number  of  points  assigned  to  each  subject  is  not  the  limit  but  is  suggestive. 
Deduct  more  than  the  total  number  when  it  seems  advisable.  For  instance,  dis- 
tance to  market  may  absolutely  disqualify  a  farm  if  one  wishes  to  sell  milk,  while 
it  is  much  less  important  for  a  grain,  hay  or  sheep  farm.  Similarly,  there  are  con- 
ditions that  may  call  for  higher  deductions  on  any  of  the  points.  Credits  for  excep- 
tional values,  such  as  superior  fences,  large  orchards,  probability  of  increase  in 
value,  etc.,  may  be  added  under  number  34. 

81.  Farm  Inventory. 

Make  an  inventory  of  all  the  property  on  a  farm,  not  including 
household  articles.  What  per  cent  of  the  capital  is  in  real  estate?  In 
machinery?   In  each  of  the  other  important  items? 

82.  Farm  Accounts. 

Enter  a  set  of  farm  accounts  for  a  part  of  a  year,  and  balance  the 
books.  (See  Laboratory  Exercises  in  Farm  Management,  by  Warren 
and  Livermore.) 

83.  Farm  Accounts. 

Keep  an  account  with  chick^is,  horses,  garden,  or  some  crop,  and 
determine  the  profit  or  loss. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES  387 

84.   A  Farm  Problem. 

A  farm  problem  involves  the  application  of  all  the  principles  learned 
in  the  study  and  practice  of  agriculture  to  the  management  of  a  par- 
ticular farm.  It  corresponds  to  the  plans  and  specifications  and  financial 
estimates  that  an  architect  makes  for  a  building.  Such  a  plan  will 
require  a  considerable  amount  of  time  and  thought,  but  it  is  well 
worth  while.  Such  a  problem  may  be  written  up  by  the  following 
outline: 

(1)  Description  of  the  farm, — location,  areas,  fields,  soils,  previous 
crops,  buildings,  fences,  roads,  markets,  etc. 

(2)  Inventory  of  property  on  the  farm.  (May  be  replaced  by  a  list 
of  things  necessary.) 

(3)  Proposed  system  of  management.  The  chief  features  of  the 
plan  outlined  for  at  least  five  years. 

(4)  Crops  (for  given  year): 

(a)  Crop,  field,  area,  estimated  yield  per  acre;  total  yield.   To 

be  filled  out  for  each  field. 
(6)  Cash  crops. 

(c)  Crops  for  feed,  concentrates — roughage — bedding. 

(d)  Crops  saved  for  seed. 

(5)  Food  for  stock: 

(a)  Cows,  horses,  hens,  etc.,  each  itemized  per  animal,  and  total. 
(6)  Total  food  required, 
(c)  Food  to  be  purchased. 

(6)  Animal  products: 

(a)  Products  of  wool,  milk,  lamb,  colts,  etc. 

(b)  Products  sold. 

(7)  Receipts  itemized. 

(8)  Expenses  itemized. 

(9)  Inventory  at  end  of  year,  allowing  for  depreciation,  increases 
in  value,  etc.  (The  depreciation  and  losses  of  horses  and  cows  is  usually 
about  15  per  cent;  of  chickens,  40  per  cent;  of  tools,  12  to  15  per  cent.) 

(10)  Financial  results: 

Balance  equals  receipts,  less  expenses. 

Farm  income  equals  balance,  plus  or  minus  change  in  inventory. 

Labor  income   equals   farm  income,  minus  interest  on  capital, 

or  5  per  cent  on  average  of  two  inventories. 
If  a  tenant  farm,  labor  income  of  tenant. 
Percentage  on  investment  made  by  landlord. 
In  a  similar  way,  estimate  may  be  made  for  a  series  of  years. 


388  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

86.   Plans  for  a  Farmstead. 

Make  a  plan,  showing  the  arrangements  of  farm  buildings  as  you 
think  they  should  be  arranged  on  some  farm.  (For  exercise  on  arrange- 
ment of  fields,  see  page  280.) 

86.  Plans  and  Estimates  for  Farm  Buildings. 

Make  a  plan  for  a  small  farm  building,  a  bill  of  lumber  and  other 
materials  required  to  make  it,  and  estimate  the  cost. 

87.  Business  Forms. 

Make  out  an  order  for  goods,  a  contract  with  a  hired  man,  a  lease, 
a  note,  a  receipt. 

COLLATERAL   READING 

Forest  Service,  Circular  No.  159.  The  Future  Use  of  Land  in  the 
United  States. 

Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos. : 

242.  An  Example  of  Model  Farming. 

245.  The  Renovation  of  Wom-Out  Soils. 

272.  A  Successful  Hog  and  Seed  Com  Farm. 

280.  A  Profitable  Tenant  Dairy  Farm. 

299.  Diversified  Farming  under  the  Plantation  System. 

310.  A  Successful  Alabama  Diversified  Farm. 

312.  A  Successful  Southern  Hay  Farm. 

325.  Small  Farms  in  the  Corn-Belt. 

326.  Building  Up  a  Run-Down  Cotton  Plantation. 
337.  Cropping  Systems  for  New  England  Dairy  Farms. 
355.  A  Successful  Poultry  and  Dairy  Farm. 

347.  The  Repair  of  Farm  Equipment. 
62.  Marketing  Farm  Produce. 
126.  Practical  Suggestions  for  Farm  Buildings. 

■  Laboratory  Exercises  in  Farm  Management,  by  Warren  and  Liver- 
more. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  1,  pp.  133-322;  Vol.  IV, 
pp.  215-239,  and  Index  of  all  volumes. 

The  Farmers'  Business  Hand-Book,  by  I.  P.  Roberts. 

How  to  choose  a  Farm,  by  T.  F.  Hunt. 

Farm  Management,  by  F.  W.  Card. 

The  Farmstead,  by  I.  P.  Roberts. 


CHAPTER   XVII 
THE  FARM   HOME 

Farming  is  one  of  the  few  occupations  in  which  the 
business  and  the  home  are  united.  So  close  is  this  union 
that  the  distinction  between  the  business  and  the  personal 
and  household  matters  is  not  often  thought  of.  Of  the 
many  things  that  have  to  do  with  the  making  of  a  com- 
fortable farm  home,  we  shall  here  consider  only  three 
points, — the  arrangement  of  the  grounds,  the  type  of 
buildings,  and  the  modern  conveniences. 

327.  The  Farmyard.  The  first  essential  for  an  attrac- 
tive farmyard  is  neatness.  After  this,  a  little  attention 
to  planting  will  accomplish  the  rest.  Nothing  is  more 
attractive  than  a  good  lawn,  add  to  this  a  few  trees  and 
shrubs  and  flowers,  and  nearly  any  farmyard  will  be  attrac- 
tive. The  shrubs  should  be  planted  in  groups  in  the  corners, 
around  the  house,  and  to  serve  as  screens  to  shut  off  unde- 
sirable views.  Scattered,  aimless  planting  is  not  effective. 
Flower  beds  should  also  be  placed  at  the  sides  and  in  cor- 
ners, so  as  to  keep  the  center  of  the  lawn  open.  Such  an 
arrangement  is  not  only  attractive,  but  it  also  makes  the 
care  of  the  lawn  much  easier.  Compare  Figs.  196  and  197 
in  this  respect.  At  the  same  time,  over-planting  should  be 
avoided.  The  farmyard  should  not  be  a  pattern  of  city 
properties,  unless  it  is  the  country  home  of  some  city  man 
who  is  able  to  hire  a  gardener  to  take  care  of  it.  The 
farm  home  should  be  attractive,  but  not  ostentatious. 

(389) 


THE  FARM  HOME 


391 


328.  The  Farmhouse.  The  type  of  house  that  is  suited 
to  the  city  is  wholly  out  of  place  in  the  country.  The 
superabundance  of  gables  and  strikina;  shapes  may  not 
be  conspicuous   in   a   city, 

but  in  the  country  they  give 
an  appearance  of  lack  of 
dignity.  A  house  that  is  to 
stand  alone  must  have 
strong  lines. 

City  houses  are  almost 
always  too  tall  to  look  well 
if  standing  alone.  When 
flanked  by  equally  tall 
neighbors,  they  may  look 
better  than  low  buildings, 
but  when  set  off  by  them- 
selves the  appearance  is 
entirely  changed.  It  is  much  like  a  forest  tree  that  ap- 
pears well  when  surrounded  by  tall  trees,  but  that  looks 
like  an  exclamation  point  when  standing  by  itself. 

329.  Modern  Conveniences  for  the  Farm  Home.  As 
soon  as  a  farmer  becomes  able,  he  should  have  water 
piped  into  the  house  to  supply  the  kitchen  and  bathroom. 
This  not  only  saves  hours  of  labor  for  the  farm  women, 
but  it  adds  to  the  comfort  and  health  of  the  family.  In 
some  cases,  water  from  a  spring  may  be  piped  into  the 
house,  or  a  reservoir  may  be  estabhshed  on  a  hillside,  or 
a  hydraulic  ram  may  pump  up  the  water.  Usually  an 
elevated  tank  or  an  air-pressure  system  must  be  used. 
The  air-pressure  system  costs  more  than  the  elevated  tank, 
but  it  can  be  put  in  a  cellar  so  as  to  prevent  freezing, 


Fig.  196.  Scattered  planting  of  trees 
pruned  in  artificial  shapes.  An  open 
lawn  would  present  a  better  appearance. 


392  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

and  has  some  other  advantages.  Air  is  pumped  into  an  air- 
tight iron  tank.  Water  is  then  forced  in.  The  air-pressure 
will  force  all  the  water  out.    Some  of  the  air  is  dissolved 


Fig.  197.   Well-planted  farm-yard.   Trees  at  the  sides,  flowers  in  the  corners 
and  about  the  house,  open  lawn.   Contrast  with  Fig.  196 

in  the  water,  so  that  more  has  to  be  pumped  in  occasionally 
to  maintain  the  pressure.  A  reinforced  concrete  cistern  is 
sometimes  used  instead  of  a  tank.  In  either  case,  the  water 
may  be  pumped  by  hand,  by  a  windmill,  or  by  an  engine. 
The  obstacle  that  usually  deters  farmers  from  installing 
a  water  system  is  the  supposed  difficulty  of  disposing  of 
the  drainage  water.  This  is  usually  not  a  difficult  problem. 
The  bathroom  fixtures  and  plumbing  should  ordinarily 
be  installed  by  a  plumber.  All  the  outside  work  may  be 
done  with    farm    labor.    The  drain -pipe   should   extend 


THE  FARM    HOME  393 

twenty  to  one  hundred  feet  from  the  house,  and  should 
be  made  of  four-inch  sewer  pipe  with  all  joints  closed  by 
cement.  This  pipe  may  discharge  into  a  cesspool  that  is 
merely  a  hole  in  the  ground  and  that  is  walled  with  stone 
laid  without  mortar.  Such  an  arrangement  is  satisfactory  if 
the  ground  is  very  porous,  and  if  no  wells  are  within  any 
possible  range  of  contamination.  The  sewage  should  not  be 
emptied  directly  into  streams  or  ponds. 

If  the  land  is  not  porous,  or  if  there  is  any  danger  of 
contamination  of  wells,  a  cement  collecting  tank,  or  septic 
tank,  should  be  provided.  A  tank  3x6  feet  and  3  feet 
deep  is  large  enough  for  a  family  of  six  persons.   While 


Fig.  198.     A  dilapidated  farmhouse  made  attractive  by  vines  and  flowers 

the  sewage  remains  in  this  tank,  the  bacteria  decompose 
the  solids  contained  in  it,  so  that  it  may  be  distributed  by 
underground  irrigation  in  a  lawn  or  field.  The  inlet  pipe 
should  have  a  bend  at  the  end  so  as  to  direct  the  water 
downward.  The  outlet  pipe  should  slope  upward  so  as  not 
to  allow  the  scum  to  run  off,  as  this  scum  is  filled  with 


394 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 


the  bacteria  that  are  essential  in  destroying  the  sewage. 
The  outlet  pipe  will  need  to  be  four  to  eight  feet  long  for 
each  person,  depending  on  the  soil.    It  is  made  of  tile  drain- 


Fig.  199.  The  city  house  in  the  country.  A  tall  house  standing  alone  on  a 
hill, — conditions  that  demand  a  low  house.  Trees  planted  at  the  sides  would  help 
the  appearance.    Contrast  with  Fig.  195. 

pipe  laid  with  a  fall  of  one  inch  in  sixteen  feet.  This  pre- 
vents the  water  running  to  the  lower  end  so  rapidly  as  to 
cause  a  wet  place  there.  The  water  seeps  out  the  entire 
length  of  the  drain. 

If  the  farm  is  tile-drained,  the  septic  tank  may  be 
connected  with  the  drainage  system.  The  entire  cost 
of  such  modern  improvements,   aside  from   the  well  or 


COLLATERAL    READING 


395 


other  water-supply,  need  not  exceed  $150  to  $300.  The 
writer  knows  of  one  system  with  an  elevated  tank  in  the 
barn,  sink  in  the  kitchen,  bathtub,  closet  and  wash-bowl 
in  the  bathroom,  and  a  system  of  sewage  disposal,  complete, 
that  was  put  in  for  less  than  $250.  Nothing  of  equal  cost 
will  add  more  to  the  comfort  of  a  farm  home.  Other  con- 
veniences may  be  added  as  the  means  permit. 

LABORATORY   EXERCISES 
88,  Water  System  for  a  Farmhouse. 

Make  a  plan  for  a  water-supply,  and  sewage  disposal,  for  some  farm 
in  the  neighborhood.  Obtain  estimates  of  the  cost  of  installing  the 
system,  including  bathroom  fixtures  and  kitchen  sink. 


COLLATERAL   READING 

Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos. : 

126.    Practical  Suggestions  for  Farm  Buildings. 

134.    Tree-Planting  in  Rural  School  Grounds. 

185.    Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds  (appUes  to  city  homes 
mostljO- 

270.    Modern  Conveniences  for  the  Farm  Home. 

317.    Conveniences  for  the  Farm  Home,  pp.  5-10. 

342.    A  Model  Kitchen,  pp.  30-32. 

155.    How  Insects  Affect  Health  in  Rural  Districts. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  I,  pp.  231-245;  278-323. 
The  Farmstead,  by  I.  P.  Roberts. 
Farm  Buildings,  Sanders  Publishing  Company,  Chicago. 


CEMENT  OR  STONE  COVER  ONE  FOOT  BELOW  GROUND. 


Fjg.  200.  A  septic  tank 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
THE  FARM  COMMUNITY 

We  commonly  attribute  success  to  the  individual 
because  our  observations  are  usually  confined  to  one 
neighborhood.  If  we  compare  different  communities, 
we  shall  at  once  see  that  the  success  of  an  individual  is 
as  much  dependent  on  the  community  as  it  is  on  himself. 
If  the  community  secures  a  reputation  for  good  products 
of  any  kind,  every  man  shares  in  the  rewards.  If  it  becomes 
noted  for  poor  products,  even  the  good  products  will  not 
sell  well,  because  they  come  from  a  locality  that  has  a 
bad  reputation.  A  certain  county  fruit-growers'  society 
subscribed  funds  to  spray  the  neglected  orchards  of  the 
county,  because  they  could  not  afford  to  have  any  poor 
apples  go  out  from  that  county.     (See,   also,  page  376.) 

If  one  wishes  to  sell  his  farm,  some  of  the  first  ques- 
tions asked  are  about  the  schools,  churches,  roads,  and 
the  moral  standards  of  the  people.  Not  long  ago,  the  writer 
visited  two  sections  of  the  same  river  valley.  The  soils, 
crops  and  railroads  were  equally  good;  but,  in  one  neigh- 
borhood land  was  worth  $30  per  acre,  and  in  the  other,  $50. 
The  difference  was  wholly  due  to  the  moral  standard  of 
the  community.  One  was  composed  of  self-respecting 
farmers,  in  the  other  the  chief  interest  of  the  young  men 
was  said  to  be  in  fast  horses  and  whiskey. 

The  prospective  buyer  is  also  influenced  by  the  general 
appearance  of  the  community.    If  the  buildings  are  un- 

(396) 


THE   FARM   COMMUNITY  397 

painted,  the  barns  covered  with  patent-medicine  adver- 
tisements, the  roadsides  full  of  weeds,  the  fences  down,  it 
indicates  that  the  community  is  not  prosperous.  No  matter 
how  well  some  one  man's  place  may  look,  a  buyer  will  be 
afraid  that  there  is  some  fundamental  trouble  with  the 
region.  He  will  ask  himself  whether  the  farms  are  so  poor 
that  their  small  returns  have  to  be  supplemented  with  an 
income  from  signboards.  He  will  fear  that  the  land  is  so 
poor  that  it  takes  all  the  farmer's  energy  to  make  a  living 
so  that  he  has  no  time  to  clean  up. 

The  community  affects  one's  happiness  as  well  as  his 
profits.  At  the  present  time,  the  ideal  in  many  farming 
sections  is  to  make  enough  money  so  that  one  can  move 
to  town  to  live.  One  of  the  arguments  that  was  presented 
in  the  central  West  to  the  Commission  on  Country  Life, 
to  show  that  farming  was  all  right,  was  that  the  farmers 
were  so  prosperous  that  they  were  selling  or  renting  their 
farms  and  moving  to  town.  If  the  farm  home  and  the 
farm  community  are  all  right,  then  the  farm  will  be  a 
place  to  live  and  die  on,  not  merely  a  place  to  run  away 
from.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  increasing  number  of 
city  men  who  are  retiring  to  farms  at  the  same  time  that 
farmers  are  retiring  to  the  towns. 

It  is  the  duty  of  every  loyal  citizen  to  take  an  active 
part  in  improving  his  community.  The  best  place  to  begin 
such  an  improvement  is  by  cleaning  up  the  roadsides 
and  fence-rows,  and  keeping  the  farmyard  neat  and  attrac- 
tive. 

But  the  interest  should  not  stop  here.  The  obUgations 
to  the  grange,  the  school,  the  church,  are  as  positive  as 
are  the  obUgations  to  keep  the  corn-field  clean.    It  makes 


398  ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURE 

no  difference  whether  one  belongs  to  all  these  organiza- 
tions or  not.  They  affect  the  community,  and  a  loyal  citi- 
zen is  interested  in  everything  that  affects  the  community. 
Cooperative  organizations  of  many  kinds  are  needed,  if 
farmers  are  to  be  able  to  deal  successfully  with  the  city 
organizations.  There  are  two  ways  in  which  one  may  be 
a  leader  in  public  work.  One  way  is  to  be  president  of 
everything  and  do  all  the  work  alone.  The  other  way  is 
to  help  others  to  take  the  positions  of  responsibility,  and 
remain  more  or  less  in  the  background.  The  strong  leader 
is  the  one  who  gets  other  persons  so  interested  that  they 
will  carry  on  the  work  even  if  he  should  drop  out. 

A  reasonable  amount  of  time  spent  on  these  civic  duties 
will  not  detract  from  the  farm  profits.  If  one  does  some 
of  this  public  work,  he  is  likely  to  be  more  alert,  and  because 
of  the  recreation  that  it  gives,  he  will  be  better  able  to 
conduct  his  farm.  If  one  does  nothing  but  work,  his  senses 
will  eventually  become  dulled,  his  interest  in  life  lost,  his 
step  will  become  slower  and  his  smiles  less  frequent  because 
he  misses  the  diversion  of  community  life  that  all  humanity 
requires.  Occasionally,  a  man  neglects  his  farm  because 
of  these  interests,  but  this  is  not  necessary.  In  fact,  his 
influence  in  the  community  is  usually  lost  if  his  farm  is 
neglected.  The  ideal  citizen  is  one  who  works  quietly, 
doing  those  things  that  lie  first  at  hand;  one  who  keeps 
his  own  place  neat  and  prosperous,  and  who  is  ever  ready 
to  assist  a  public  enterprise  without  becoming  officious. 


COLLATERAL    READING  399 

QUESTIONS 

(See  Appendix,  Tables  11,  12  and  13.) 

1.  What  are  the  most  important  agricultural  products  in  the  United 
States? 

2.  Which  agricultural  products  show  the  greatest  net  exports? 
Imports?  Which  class  of  articles  are  more  discussed  in  framing  tariff 
laws? 

3.  Of  the  imported  products,  which  ones  might  our  government 
encourage  American  farmers  to  produce? 

4.  Which  kind  of  exports  are  more  desirable  for  a  nation, — animals, 
meat  and  butter,  or  grain  and  cottonseed?  Why? 

5.  What  agricultural  societies  or  organizations  are  there  in  your 
region?   What  work  is  each  doing? 

6.  What  social,  religious  and  educational  organizations  are  there? 
^Vhat  kind  of  work  does  each  do? 

7.  Are  the  farms  looked  upon  as  permanent  homes,  or  do  the  farmers 
desire  to  move  to  town  as  soon  as  possible? 

COLLATERAL  READING 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  IV. 
The  State  and  the  Farmer,  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 
Chapters  in  Rural  Progress,  by  Kenyon  L.  Butterfield. 
Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos. : 

327.  The  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources. 

340.  Declaration  of  Governors  for  Conservation  of  Namral 
Resources. 


APPENDIX 

TABLE  1 

Apparatus  and  Equipment 

Good  work  in  agriculture  may  be  done  with  very  little  equipment. 
It  is  desirable  that  the  school  be  equipped  for  regular  laboratory  work 
in  botany,  chemistry  and  physics.  Ordinarily,  the  same  microscopes 
and  balances  that  are  used  for  botany  and  physics  may  be  used  in 
agriculture,  so  as  to  avoid  the  expense  of  duplication.  The  Babcock 
milk-testing  outfit  furnishes  an  apparatus  to  demonstrate  centrifugal 
force  to  a  class  in  physics.  Such  of  the  following  equipment  as  is  not 
already  on  hand  is  desirable  for  a  class  of  ten: 

Two  compound  microscopes,  magnifying  to  500  diameters,  to  cost 
$18  to  $25  each. 

Two  balances,  weighing  to  centigrams. 

One  spring  balance. 

Ten  lenses  or  small  magnifying  glasses.  (Students  should  own 
these.) 

One  Babcock  milk-testing  outfit  complete,  with  special  bottles  for 
testing  skim-milk.  May  be  purchased  of  the  Creamery  Package 
Manufacturing  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

One  saw,  square,  hammer,  etc. 

One  graduate,  100  cc. 

Three  thermometers. 

Three  tall  lamp  chimneys,  or  large  glass  tubea. 

One  dozen  pint  fruit-jars. 

One  dozen  quart  fruit-jars. 

One-half  dozen  beakers   (drinking-glasses  may  be  substituted). 

One  dozen  four-inch  flower-pots,  with  saucers,  and  one  dozen 
six-inch. 

Four  dozen  test  tubes. 

Six  porcelain  crucibles  (iron  spoons  may  be  used). 

One  gasoline  burner  or  laboratory  burner  (a  stove  may  be  used). 

Ten  tape  measures. 

One  set  of  samples  of  fertilizing  materials. 

(400) 


APPENDIX  401 

Fertilizing  materials  for  exercises  52  and  57,  if  these  are  given. 

Six  bushels  of  lime  and  15  pounds  of  alfalfa  seed,  if  exercise  No. 
58  is  given. 

One  pound  of  lime. 

One-half  pound  copper  sulfate. 

One  pound  resin. 

One-fourth  pound  tallow. 

One  ball  No.  18  knitting  cotton. 

Land, — any  amount  from  one-fourth  acre  to  a  farm. 

If  the  school  does  not  have  chemical  supplies,  apparatus  and  chemi- 
cals for  preparing  nitrogen,  oxygen,  carbon-dioxid  and  hydrogen  will 
be  needed.    (See  a  text  book  of  chemistry.) 

Bottles,  tin  cans  and  other  supplies  may  be  brought  from  the  homes 
by  the  students  as  needed. 

TABLE   2 

Agricultural  Library 

Fortunately,  there  are  so  many  good  bulletins  on  agriculture  that 
a  good  library  may  be  secured  at  little  expense. 

The  school  should  secure  a  complete  set  of  the  Farmers'  Bulletins 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  These  may  be  obtained 
from  the  Congressman  of  the  district  or  by  writing  to  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  These  bulletins  should  be  bound 
or  should  be  punched  and  tied  into  volumes,  with  manila  covers. 
Regular  binding,  which  will  cost  $6  to  $12,  is  to  be  preferred. 

The  teacher  or  members  of  the  class  may  write  for  additional 
copies  of  such  Farmers'  Bulletins  as  are  much  used  for  collateral  read- 
ing, so  that  each  student  may  have  his  own  copies  of  the  important 
numbers. 

Ask  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  to  place  the 
school  on  the  mailing  list,  to  receive  the  monthly  list  of  publications, 
and  to  receive  the  following: 

One  copy  of  Circular  No.  4,  Division  of  Publication;  Farmers' 
Bulletin  Subject  Index;  one  copy  of  the  List  of  Publications  for  free 
distribution;  one  copy  of  the  List  of  Publications  for  sale.  Bulletins 
in  the  former  list  will  be  sent  free  to  any  address;  those  in  the  latter 
list  may  be  purchased,  or  some  of  them  may  be  secured  from  Congress- 
men. 

Write  to  your  Congressman  for  such  copies  of  the  Yearbook  of  the 

Z 


402  ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 

Department  of  Agriculture  as  he  may  have  for  distribution,  stating 
that  they  are  for  the  school  library. 

Write  to  your  State  Experiment  Station  (see  page  403)  for  copies 
of  available  bulletins  and  reports,  and  ask  to  be  placed  on  the  mailing 
list. 

Write  to  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  asking  whether  it  has 
publications  for  distribution. 

Copies  of  a  few  good  farm  papers  and  country-life  magazines  are 
desirable  for  the  reading-table. 

REFERENCE  BOOKS 

The  following  books  are  referred  to  for  collateral  reading.  As 
many  of  these  as  possible  should  be  secured.  If  the  school  can  spend 
only  $20  for  reference  books,  the  writer  would  recommend  the  Cyclo- 
pedia of  American  Agriculture  as  containing  the  largest  amount  of 
information  for  the  price.  Most  of  the  other  books  in  the  list  should  be 
purchased  as  soon  as  possible.  Many  other  books  are  desirable  if  they 
can  be  afforded,  particularly  those  that  treat  of  important  specialized 
ai^ricultural  interests  of  the  state.    The  exact  order  of  purchase  will 

depend  on  the  type  of  farming  in  the  region. 

List  price 

1.  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  four  volumes,  by  L.  H. 

Bailey $20  00 

2.  The  Principles  of  Breeding,  by  E.  Davenport    2  50 

3.  Chemistry  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life,  by  Harry  Snyder.  ...      1  25 
*  4.  Physics  of  Agriculture,  by  F.  H.  King 1  75 

6.  The  Principles  of  Soil  Management,  by  Lyon  and  Fippin  . .  175 

6.  Soils,  by  S  W.  Fletcher.    (Not  so  difficult  as  No.  5)   2  CO 

7.  First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility,  by  A   Vivian 1  CO 

8.  The  Fertility  of  the  Land,  by  I.  P.  Roberts 1  £0 

9    Fungous  Diseases  of  Plants,  by  B.  M,  Duggar 2  00 

10.  Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life,  by  J.  G.  Lipman 1  50 

11.  The  Cereals  in  America,  by  T.  F.  Hunt 1  75 

12.  The  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  by  T.  F.  Hunt 1  75 

13.  Manual  of  Gardening,  by  L.  H.  Bailey 2  00 

14.  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing,  by  L.  H.  Bailey 1  50 

15.  The  American  Apple  Orchard,  by  F.  A.  Waugh   1  00 

16.  The  Potato,  by  S.  Frazer 75 

17.  Corn  Plants,  by  Leroy  Sargent 75 

1^.  Feeds  and  Feeding,  by  W.  A.  Henry 2  00 


APPENDIX  403 

List  price 

19.  The  Feeding  of  Animals,  by  W,  H.  Jordan.  (More  difficult  than 

No.  18) $1  50 

20.  Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  by  S.  C.  Plumb 2  00 

21.  The  Horse,  by  I.  P.  Roberts 1  25 

22.  The  Farmstead,  by  I.  P.  Roberts 1  50 

23.  The  Farmers'  Business  Hand-Book,  by  I.  P.  Roberts 1  25 

24.  Farm  Machinery  and  Motors,  by  Davidson  and  Chase 2  00 

25.  Com,  by  Bowman  and  Crossley 2  00 

2G.  The  State  and  the  Farmer,  by  L.  H.  Bailey 1  25 

The  publishers  are  as  follows  :  Nos.  1,  3,  5,  8,  10,  13,  14,  19,  21,  22, 

23,  26,  The  Macmillan  Co.,  64-66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York.  Nos.  2,  9, 
20,  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston  and  Chicago.  No.  4,  F.  H.  King,  Madison,  Wis. 
No.  6,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York  City.    Nos.  7,  11,  12,  15,  16, 

24,  Orange  Judd  Co.,  New  York  City.  No.  17,  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co., 
New  York  City.  No.  18,  W.  A.  Henry,  Madison,  Wis.  No.  25,  Bowman 
and  Crossley,  Ames,  Iowa. 

TABLE  3 

Addresses  of  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations 
AND  THE  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 

When  not  otherwise  indicated,  the  college  and  experiment  station 
are  at  the  same  place.    Any  letter  addressed  to  the  ''Agricultural  Col- 
lege" or  "Experiment  Station,"  with  proper  post-office  address,  will 
reach  the  institulion. 
Alabama —  Florida — Gainesville. 

College  of  Agriculture  and  Ex-       Georgia — Experiment, 
periment  Station,  Auburn.  Hawaii — 

Canebrake  Station,  Uniontown.  Federal  Station — Honolulu. 

Tuskegee  Station,  Tuskegee.  Sugar  Planters'  Station — Hono- 

Alaska — Sitka.  lulu. 

Arizona — Tucson.  Idaho — Moscow. 

Arkansas — Fayetteville.  Illinois — Urbana. 

California — Berkeley.  Indiana — Lafayette. 

Colorado — Fort  Collins.  Iowa — Ames. 

Connecticut —  Kansas — Manhattan. 

State  Station,  New  Haven.  Kentucky — Lexington. 

Agricultural  College  and  Storrs      Louisiana — Baton  Rouge. 
Experiment  Station — Storrs.      Maine — Orona. 
Delaware — Newark.  Maryland — College  Park. 


404 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


Massachusetts — Amherst. 
Michigan — East  Lansing. 
Minnesota — St.   Anthony    Park, 

St.  Paul. 
Mississippi — Agricultural  College. 
Missouri — 

College  Station — Columbia. 

Fruit  Station — Mountain  Grove 
Montana — Bozeman. 
Nebraska — Lincoln. 
Nevado — Reno. 
New  Hampshire — Durham. 
New  Jersey — New  Brunswick. 
New  Mexico — Agricultural  Col- 
lege. 
New  York^ — 

State  Station — Geneva. 

College  of  Agriculture  and  Cor- 
nell    Experiment     Station — 
Ithaca. 
North  Carolina — 

College  Station — West  Raleigh. 

State  Station^ — Raleigh. 


North  Dakota — Agricultural 
College. 

Ohio — 

Experiment  Station — Wooster. 
College  of  Agriculture — Colum- 
bus. 

Oklahoma — Stillwater. 

Oregon — Corvallis. 

Pennsylvania — State  College. 

Porto  Rico — Mayaguez. 

Rhode  Island — Kingston. 

South   Carolina — Clemson  Col- 
lege. 

South  Dakota — Brookings. 

Tennessee — Knoxville, 

Texas — College  Station. 

Utah — Logan. 

Vermont — Burlington. 

Virginia — Blacksburg. 

Washington — Pullman. 

West  Virginia — Morgantown. 

Wisconsin — Madison. 

Wyoming — Laramie . 


The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  is  located  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  One  may  address  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  or  write 
to  one  of  the  Divisions  of  the  Department.  The  most  important  ones 
are  as  follows: 


Weather  Bureau. 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 
Forest  Service. 
Bureau  of  Chemistry. 
Bureau  of  Soils. 


Bureau  of  Entomology. 
Bureau  of  Biological  Survey. 
Division  of  Publications. 
Bureau  of  Statistics. 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 
Office  of  Public  Roads. 


The  most  important  addresses  in  Canada  are: 

Dominion  Department  of    Agri-      Agricultural  College,  St.  Anne  de 

culture,  Ottawa.  Belle vue. 

Ontario  Agricultural  College,      Agricultural  College,  Winnipeg. 

Guelph. 


APPENDIX 


405 


TABLE  4 
Length  of  Time  Seeds  Maintain  Their  Vitalitt 

Average 


years 

Barley 3 

Bean 3 

Beet 6 

Buckwheat 2 

Cabbage 5 

Carrot    4 

Celery 8 

Clover   3 

Com 2 

Cucumber,  common 6 

Eggplant 6 

Flax 2 

Hop 2 

Lettuce,  common 5 

Millet 2 

Muskmelon 5 

Mustard 3 


Average 
years 

Oats 3 

Onion 2 

Orchard  grass 2 

Parsnip 2 

Peanut 1 

Peas 3 

Pumpkin 5 

Radish 5 

Rape   5 

Rye   2 

Salsify 2 

Soy-bean 2 

Squash 6 

Timothy   2 

Turnip 5 

Watermelon 6 

Wheat 2 


TABLE  4a 
Quantity  of  Seed  Per  Acre 


Alfalfa  (broadcast) 20-30  lbs. 

Alfalfa  (drilled) 15-20  lbs. 

Barley 8-10  pks. 

Beans  (field) 2-6  pks. 

Blue-grass  (sown  alone)...        25  lis. 
Brome  grass  (sown  alone)  12-20  lbs. 

Buckwheat    3-5  pks. 

Cabbage f-1  lb. 

Carrot  (for  stock) 4-6  lbs. 

Clover  (alsike  alone) 8-15  lbs. 

Clover  ("ed  alone)    10-18  lbs. 

Com 6-8  qts. 

Corn  (for  silage) 9-11  qts. 

Cotton 1-2  bus. 

Cowpea 1-li  bus. 

Flax 2-4  pks. 

Mangels 5-8  lbs. 

Millet 1-3  pks. 


Oats 2-3  bus. 

Potato 6-20  bus. 

Potato  (recommended)  .  .15-18  bus. 

Pumpkin 4  lbs. 

Rape 2-8  lbs. 

Red-Top  (recleaned) 12-15  lbs. 

Rice 1-3  bus. 

Rye 3-8  pks. 

Sugar  Beets 15-20  lbs. 

Sweet  Potato 1^-4  bus. 

Timothy 10-20  lbs. 

Timothy  and  Clover — 

Timothy 10-15  lbs. 

Clover 4-10  lbs. 

Turnip  (broadcast) 2-4  lbs. 

Vetch  (hairy),  1  bus.  -f-  1  bus.  small 

grain. 
Wheat 6-9  pks. 


Xq!»oraix 


9^a 


90TJ  qgnog 


880!JB!J0<I 


8B9J 


BUOTUO 


S^BQ 


*9inK 


(paasmj) 


(puBidfi) 
p98suo!;:joo 


[Bern  TUOQ 


aB9  UT  moo 


IBOQ 


p998  JSAOtO 


!}B9qM3I9nS 


uBjg 


p99S 
8SBja-9Tl|S 


enB9g[ 


XeiJBS 


B9lddB  p9tJ[a 


»0  »0  O  kO  lO  lO  lO 


^ 


•eooco    •    •■* 


:SS 


:§§ 


W  lO  O  lO  »0     •  lO  lO 


lO  o  »o  »o  o  o  o  »o 


;5S«i0Ol.'5«DO3 


g  :S 


s9iddY 


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do 


)  o  «c  »o  o  »o  >o 


SoSSs^cot 


(NOC 


M§(N 


00  00  00  00  00  »  00  00 


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408 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


TABLE  6 
Fertilizing  Constituents  in  100  Pounds  of  Various  Substances 


Acid  phosphate 

Alfalfa,  green    

Alfalfa,  hay 

Ammonium  sulfate     . . 

Apples 

Apple  pomace 

Ashes,  average 

Ash  of  evergreen  trees  . 
Ash  of  hardwood  trees 

Ashes,  leached 

Barley    

^.^Barley  straw 


ean  straw 

Beet,  mangel 

Beet,  sugar • 

Blood,  dried    

Bone  meal 

Brewers'  grains,  dry 

Brewers'  grains,  wet    

Buckwheat    

Buckwheat  bran 

Buckwheat  middlings 

Cabbage 

Carrots 

/  Clover  (red),  green 

^Clover  hay 

Corn,  grain    

Corn  fodder,  with  ears 

Corn  fodder,  green,  with  ears 

Com  stover 

Com  silage 

Com  cobs 

Cotton,  lint 

Cotton,  seed    

Cottonseed  meal 

Gluten  meal    

p.  Guano,  Peruvian    

Hominy  feed 

Kainit    

Linseed  meal 

Malt  sprouts 

Milk,  cows'    

Milk,  skimmed 

Mixed  hay 

Nitrate  of  potash 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Oat,  grain 

Oat  straw    


Pea- vine  straw 

Potatoes 

Potassium,  muriate  of,  80  per  cent . 
Potassium,  sulfate  of,  90  per  cent  . 

Pumpkin 

Rice 

Rice  hulls    


12.0 
76.0 
15.3 
4.0 
84.7 
74.0 

'  5 .6 

5.0 
30.2 
14.3 
14.2 
14.5 

5.3 
91.9 
82.0 

8.5 
13.0 

9.5 
76.2 
14.1 
15.6 
12.0 
85.6 
87.0 
79.0 
17.0 
13.0 
42.2 
82.8 
40.5 
77.9 
10.7 

ib'.3 

8.8 

8.6 

15.0 

8.9 

12.7 

8.9 

12.0 

87.2 

90.4 

13.7 

1.9 

1.4 

13.3 

14.5 

14.0 

13.6 

75.0 

1.1 

2.2 

92.3 

12.4 

8.2 


Nitrogen  (N) 


.62 

1.76 

20.50 

.05 

.17 


1.39 

1.31 

4.08 

1.14 

.19 

.17 

13.50 

2.30 

2.51 

.62 

1.23 

1.18 

3.52 

.28 

.12 

.46 

1.08 

1.26 

.40 

.16 

.27 

.14 

.37 

.28 

3.07 

5.95 

4.12 

7.00 

1.20 

4.68 

2.97 

.53 

.56 

.99 

13.09 

15.7 

1.47 

.19 

2.68 


.14 


.11 

1.08 

.58 


Phosphoric 
acid  (PgOg) 


15.20 
.15 
.61 

".02 

.01 

1.53 

2.50 

3.50 

1.51 

.79 

0.3 

1.21 

.21 

.09 

.08 

1.35 

17.60 

1.61 

.42 

.69 

.42 

1.23 

.22 

.09 

.15 

.55 

.57 

.29 

.11 

.38 

.11 

.04 

.07 

1.02 

3.04 

.33 

14.00 

.98 

1.66 

1.74 

.19 

.20 

.41 


.28 
.84 
.35 
.16 


Potash 


.35 
1.79 

'  '.'li 

.03 

5.13 

6.00 

10.00 

1.27 

.48 

2.09 

1.29 

1.84 

.38 

.37 

.77 

.01 

.20 

.05 

.30 

1.27 

1.14 

.52 

.26 

.48 

1.87 

.37 

1.40 

.39 

1.64 

.37 

.43 

.64 

1.16 

1.58 

.05 

3.30 

.49 

12.80 

1.37 

1.99 

.18 

.19 

1.32 

45.19 


1.77 

l.Ol 

1.02 

.57 

52.70 

49.90 


.14 


APPENDIX 


409 


Table  6,  continued 


Water 

Nitrogen  (N) 

Phosphoric 
acid  (PgOg) 

Potash 
(K2O) 

9.7 
10.0 
13.4 

7.1 
12.5 
11.8 
14.1 
1^.3 
18.0 
90.5 
13.4 
13.2 
12.6 
13.6 

.71 
1.97 
1.58 

.46 
1.84 
5.30 
1.41 

.44 
1.64 

.18 
1.63 
1.95 
2.04 

.06 

.29 

2.67 

.86 

.28 

2.28 

1.87 

.33 

.50 

.92 

.10 

.87 

2.69 

1.35 

.22 

.24 

Rice  polish                                    .    .  •  • 

.71 

Rve 

.58 

Rye  straw           

.79 

T?vp  hrnn                                                       .  . 

1.40 

1.90 

SoV'bean  straw ....              

.77 

1.41 

Tobacco  stems                

2.82 

.39 

Wheat                

.55 

Wheat  bran 

1.52 

Wheat  middlings 

.74 

Wheat  straw                                  

.63 

TABLE  7 
Feeding  Standards  Per  Day  Per    1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight  ^ 


Digestible 

Dry 

Nutritive 

matter 

Carbohy- 

ratio 

Protein 

?a.",tSl 

Total 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Founds 

Horses  lightly  worked 

20 

1  5 

10  4 

11.9 

1-6.9 

Horses  moderately  worked 

24 

2.0 

12.4 

14.4 

1:6.2 

Horses  heavily  worked 

26 

2.5 

15.1 

17.6 

1:6.0 

Milch  cows,  Wolff's  standard  . .  . 

24 

2.5 

13.4 

15.9 

1:5.4 

Milch  cows,  when  yielding  daily . 

11  pounds  milk 

25 

1.6 

10.7 

12.3 

1:6.7 

16.6  pounds  milk    

27 

2.0 

11.9 

13.9 

1:6.0 

22.0  pounds  milk    

29 

2.5 

14.1 

16.6 

1:5.6 

27.5  pounds  milk    

32 

3.3 

14.8 

18.1 

1:4.5 

Oxen  at  rest  in  the  stall 

18 

0.7 

8.2 

8.9 

1:11.7 

Oxen  moderately  worked    

25 

2.0 

12.6 

14.6 

1:6.3 

Oxen  heavily  worked ... 

28 

2.8 

14.8 

17.6 

1:5.3 

Fattening   cattle,  preliminary 

period 

30 

2.5 

16.1 

18.6 

1:6.4 

Fattening  cattle,  main  period  .  . 

30 

3.0 

16.1 

19.1 

1:5.4 

Fattening  cattle,  finishing  period 
Breeding  ewes,  with  lambs 

26 

2.7 

16.6 

19.3 

1:6.1 

25 

2.9 

16.1 

19.0 

1:5.6 

Wool  sheep,  coarser  breeds 

20 

1.2 

11.0 

12.2 

1:9.2 

Wool  sheep,  finer  breeds 

23 

1.5 

12.7 

14.2 

1:8.5 

Fattening  sheep,  preliminary 

period 

30 

3.0 

16.1 

19.1 

1:5.4 

Fattening  sheep,  main  period .  .  . 

28 

3.5 

15.9 

19.4 

1:4.5 

22 

2.5 

16.4 

18.9 

1:6.6 

Fattening  swine,  preliminary 

period 

36 

4.5 

26.6 

31.1 

1:5.9 

Fattening  swine,  main  period .  .  . 

32 

4.0 

25.1 

29.1 

1:6.3 

Fattening  swine,  finishing  period 
Poultry,  growing  chickens*  .... 

25 

2.7 

18.9 

21.6 

1:7.0 

. 

1:4.0 

Poultry,  for  egg-production'    .  . 

65 

8.2 

39.4 

47.6 

1:4.8 

Poultry,  for  fattening'    

.... 

1:7.5 

^For  discussion  of  these  tables,  see  Henry's  Feeds  and  Feeding,  page  635. 
*From  data  furnished  by  J.  E.  Rice. 


410 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


TABLE  8 
Digestible  Nutrients  in  100  Pounds  of  Various  Feeding-Stuffs^ 


Kind  of  feed 


Alfalfa,  green 

Alfalfa  hay 

Apples 

Apple  pomace '. 

Barley,  grain 

Bean  straw 

Beet,  mangel 

Beet,  sugar 

Blood,  dried 

Brewers'  grains,  dry 

Brewers'  grains,  wet 

Buckwheat  bran 

Buckwheat,  grain 

Buckwheat  middlings 

Cabbage 

Carrot 

Clover  (red),  green 

Clover  (red),  hay 

Corn-and-cob  meal 

Com  fodder,  green 

Corn  fodder,  dry 

Corn,  grain  .  .    

Corn  silage 

Corn  stover    

Cottonseed  meal 

Cowpeas 

Gluten  meal 

Hominy  chops 

Hungarian  hay 

Linseed  meal  (new  process) 
Linseed  meal  (old  process) 

Malt  sprouts    

Meat  scrap 

Milk,  cows' 

Skim-milk,  centrifugal^ 

Skim-milk,  gravity ...!.... 

Butter  milk 

Whey.... 

Hay  of  mixed  grasses    .... 

Oat  straw 

Oats,  grain 

Peas,  grain 

Peas-and-barley,  green  .... 

Peas-and-oats,  green 

Pea-vine  straw 

Pea-vine  silage 

Potatoes 

Pumpkin,  field 

Rye,  grain 

Rye  bran 

Rye  straw 

Soy-bean  

Sugar-beet  leaves 

Sugar-beet  molasses 


Pounds  of  digestible  nutrients  I 


Total  dry 

Carbohy- 

Protein 

drates  4- 
(fat  X  2.25) 

Total 

28.2 

3.9 

13.8 

17.7 

91.6 

11.0 

42.3 

53.3 

19.0 

.7 

18.8 

19.5 

23.3 

1.1 

16.4 

17.5 

89.1 

8.7 

69.1 

77.8 

95.0 

3.6 

39.7 

43.3 

9.1 

1.1 

5.6 

6.7 

13.5 

1.1 

10.4 

11.5 

91.5 

52.3 

5.6 

57.9 

91.8 

15.7 

47.8 

63.5 

24.3 

3.9 

12.5 

16.4 

89.5 

7.4 

34.7 

42.1 

87.4 

7.7 

53.3 

61.0 

87.3 

22.0 

45.6 

67.6 

15.3 

1.8 

9.1 

10.9 

11.4 

.8 

8.3 

9.1 

29.2 

2.9 

16.4 

19.3 

84.7 

6.8 

39.6 

46.4 

84.9 

4.4 

66.5 

70.9 

20.7 

1.0 

12.5 

13.5 

57.8 

2.5 

37.3 

39.8 

89.1 

7.9 

76.4 

84.3 

20.9 

.9 

12.9 

13.8 

59.5 

1.7 

34.0 

35.7 

91.8 

37.2 

44.4 

81.6 

85.2 

18.3 

56.7 

75.0 

91.8 

25.8 

68.1 

93.9 

88.9 

7.5 

70.5 

78.0 

92.3 

4.5 

54.6 

59.1 

89.9 

28.2 

46.4 

74.6 

90.8 

29.3 

48.5 

77.8 

89.8 

18.6 

40.9 

59.5 

89.3 

66.2 

31.1 

97.3 

12.8 

3.6 

13.2 

16.8 

9.4 

2.9 

5.9 

8.8 

9.6 

8.1 

6.5 

9.6 

9.9 

3.9 

6.5 

10.4 

6.6 

0.8 

5.4 

6.2 

87.1 

5.9 

43.6 

49.5 

90.8 

1.2 

40.4 

41.6 

89.0 

9.2 

56.8 

66.0 

89.5 

16.8 

53.4 

70.2 

16.0 

1.7 

7.7 

9.4 

16.0 

1.8 

7.6 

9.4 

86.4 

4.3 

34.1 

38.4 

27.0 

2.5 

14.1 

16.6 

'21.1 

.9 

16.5 

17.4 

19.1 

1.4 

6.5 

7.9 

88.4 

9.9 

70.1 

80.0 

88.4 

11.5 

54.8 

66.3 

92.9 

.6 

41.5 

42.1 

89.2 

29.6 

54.7 

84.3 

12.0 

1.7 

5.1 

6.8 

79.2 

9.1 

59.5 

68.6 

^Adapted  from  Henry's  Feeds  and  Feeding. 


APPENDIX 


411 


Table  8,  continued 


Kind  of  feed 


Sugar-beet  pulp  . 
Timothy  hay .... 
Turnip,  flat  .... 
Wheat,  grain .... 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  middUngs 
Wheat  straw .... 


Pounds  of  digestible 

nutrients 

Total  dry 

Carbohy- 

Protein 

drates  + 
(fat  X  2.25) 

Total 

10.2 

.6 

7.3 

7.9 

86.8 

2.8 

46.6 

49.4 

9.5 

1.0 

7.7 

8.7 

89.5 

10.2 

73.0 

83.2 

88.1 

12.2 

45.3 

57.5 

87.9 

12.8 

60.7 

73.5 

90.4 

.4 

37.2 

37.6 

Nutritive 
ratio 


1:12.2 
1:16.6 
1:  7.7 
1:  7.2 
1:  3.7 
1:  4.7 
1:93.0 


TABLE  9 

Production  Values  Per  100  Pounds  of  Various  Feeding  Stuffs 

The  following  table  is  computed  according  to  Kellner  (Pennsylvania 
Bulletin  No.  84,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  346).  The  figures  in  the  last 
column  give  approximate  comparative  values  of  different  feeds  for 
producing  gains  in  mature  fattening  cattle.  A  pound  of  timothy  hay 
produces  ^  as  much  gain  as  a  pound  of  corn.  Clover  hay  is  |f  as 
effective  as  oats.  While  these  figures  are  for  fattening  cattle,  it  seems 
probable  that  they  represent  the  relative  values  of  these  feeding  stuffs 
for  sheep  and,  probably,  for  horses,  and  for  growth  and  milk-produc- 
tion as  well  as  for  fattening.  They  are  unquestionably  the  best  approxi- 
mation that  we  have  of  the  comparative  values  of  these  feeds.  (See  page 
289.) 


Total  dry 
matter 

Total 
crude  fiber 

Digestible 

Feeding  stuff 

Proteids 

Carbohy. 
drates 

Fat 

Produc- 
tion value 

Green  fndd^  and  silage: 

Alfalfa    

Clover  (red) 

Corn  f9dder 

Corn  silage 

Pounds 

28.2 
29.2 
20.7 
25.6 
28.9 
23.4 
38.4 

91.6 

84.7 

57.8 
59.5 
89.3 
92.3 
84.0 

Pounds 

7.4 
8.1 
5.0 
5.8 
9.2 
11.6 
11.8 

25.0 

24.8 

14.3 
19.7 
20.1 
27.7 
27.2 
22.3 
29.6 

Pounds 

2.50 
2.21 
.41 
1.21 
1.33 
1.44 
1.04 

6.93 
5.41 

2.13 
1.80 
8.57 
3.00 
2.59 
7.68 
2.05 

Pounds 

11.20 
14.82 
12.08 
14.56 
15.63 
14.11 
21.22 

37.33 
38.15 

32.34 
33.16 
38.40 
51.67 
33.35 
38.72 
43.72 

Pounds 
0.41 
.69 
.37 
.88 
.36 
.44 
.64 

1.38 
1.81 

1.15 
.57 
1.51 
1.34 
1.67 
1.54 
1.43 

Therms 

10.80 
14.52 
11.02 
14  26 

Hungarian  grass 

Rye 

Timothy 

13.14 
10.31 
17  80 

Hay  and  dry  coarse 
fodders: 

Alfalfa  hay    

Clover  hay  (red) 

Corn  fodder,   field- 

34.41 
34.74 

30.53 

Corn  stover 

Cowpea  hay 

Hungarian  hay 

Oat  hay    

26.53 
42.76 
44.03 
36.97 

Soybean  hay 

Timothy  hay 

88.7 
86.8 

38.65 
33.56 

412 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


Table  9,  continued 


Total  dry 
matter 

Total 
crude  fiber 

Digestible 

Feeding  stuff 

Proteids 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fat 

Produc- 
tion value 

Straws: 

Oat 

Pounds 

90.8 
92.9 
90.4 

11.4 
9.1 

21.1 
9.5 

89.1 
89.1 
84.9 
89.0 
88.4 
89.5 

24.3 
91.8 
91.9 
91.8 

90.8 
90.1 
89.8 
88.2 
88.5 

Pounds 

37.0 
38.9 
38.1 

1.3 
.8 
.6 

1.2 

2.7 
2.1 
6.6 
9.5 
1.7 
1.8 

3.8 
5.6 
6.4 
6.1 

8.9 
8.8 
10.7 
3.3 
9.0 

Pounds 

1.09 
.63 
.37 

.37 

.14 
.45 
.22 

8.37 
6.79 
4.53 
8.36 
8.12 
8.90 

3.81 
35.15 
19.95 
21.56 

27.54 
29.26 
12.36 
11.35 
10.21 

Pounds 

38.64 
40.58 
36.30 

7.83 

5.65 

16.43 

6.46 

64.83 
66  12 
60.06 
48.34 
69.73 
69.21 

9.37 
16.52 
54.22 
43.02 

32.81 
38.72 
43.50 
52.40 
41.23 

Pounds 

.76 
.38 
.40 

.22 
.11 

■;ii 

1.60 
4.97 
2.94 
4.18 
1.36 
1.68 

1.38 
12.58 

5.35 
11.87 

7.06 
2.90 
1.16 
1.79 

2.87 

Therms 
21.21 

Rye                       

20.87 

Wheat 

16.56 

Roots,  etc.: 

Carrots 

7.82 

Mangels               ...   . 

4.62 

18.05 

Turnips 

5.74 

Grains: 
Barley 

80.75 

Com 

88.84 

Com-and-cobmeal  . 
Oats 

72.05 
66.27 

Rye 

81.72 

Wheat 

82.63 

By-prodticts: 

Brewers'  grains,  wet. 
Cottonseed  meal .... 

Gluten  feed,  dry 

Gluten  meal,  Buffalo 
Linseed  meal — 

Old  process 

New  process    

Malt  sprouts 

14.82 
84.20 
79.32 
85.46 

78.92 
74.67 
46.33 
56.65 

Wheat  bran 

48.23 

TABLE  10 
Average  Weights  of  Different  Feeding-Stuffs^ 


Feeding  stuff 


One  quart 
weighs 


One  pound 
measures 


Barley  meal 

Barley,  whole    

Brewers'  dried  grains. . 
Com-and-cob  meal . .  .  . 

Com-and-oat  feed 

Com  bran 

Com  meal 

Corn,  whole 

Cottonseed  meal 

Distillers'  grains,  dried 


Pounds 
1.1 

1.5 
0.6 
1.4 
0.7 
0.5 
1.5 
1.7 
1.5 
0.5-0.7 


Quarts 

0.9 
0.7 
1.7 
0.7 
1.4 
2.0 
0.7 
0.6 
0.7 
1.0-1.4 


^Farmers'  Btilletin  No.  222 


APPENDIX 
Table  10,  continued 


413 


Feeding  stuff 


Germ  oil  meal 

Gluten  feed   

Gluten  meal 

Hominy  meal      

Linseed  meal,  new  process  . 
Linseed  meal,  old  process .  .  . 

Malt  sprouts    

Oats,  ground 

Oats,  whole 

Rye  bran 

Rye  meal 

Rye,  whole 

\Vheat  bran 

Wheat,  ground    

Wheat  middlings  (flour)  .  .  . 
Wheat  middlings  (standard). 
Wheat,  whole    


One  quart 

One  pound 

weighs 

measures 

Pounds 

Quarts 

1.4 

0.7 

1.3 

0.8 

1.7 

0.6 

1.1 

0.9 

0.9 

1.1 

1.1 

0.9 

0.6 

1.7 

0.7 

1.4 

1.0 

1.0 

0.6 

1.8 

1.5 

0.7 

1.7 

0.6 

0.5 

2.0 

1.7 

0.6 

1.2 

0.8 

0.8 

1.3 

2.0 

0.5 

TABLE  11 

Values  of  Leading  Agricultural  Products  in  the  United  States 

FOR  THE  Year  1899 

Com $828,000,000 

Animals  sold 723,000,000 

Hay  and  forage    484,000,000 

Milk,  butter  and  cheese 472,000,000 

Cotton  and  cottonseed 371,000,000 

Wheat   370,000,000 

Poultry  and  eggs 281,000,000 

Oats 217,000,000 

Animals  slaughtered    190,000,000 

Miscellaneous  vegetables 114,000,000 

Forest  products  (i.  e.,  by-products  of  the  farm,  not  in- 
cluding the  lumber  industry) 110,000,000 

Potatoes    98,000,000 

Orchard  products 84,000,000 

Tobacco 57,000,000 

Wool 46,000,000 

Barley   42,000,000 

Small  fruits 25,000,000 

Sugar-cane  and  products 21,000,000 

Sweet  potatoes 20,000,000 

Flax  seed 20,000,000 


414 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


TABLE  12 

Agriculture  Compared  with  Manufacturing 

Total  capital  invested  in  manufacturing,  1899    $9,874,664,087 

Total  value  of  all  farm  property,  1899 20,514,001,838 

Total  horse  power  employed  in  factories,  1899 11,300,081 

Total  number  of  horses  and  mules  on  farms,  1899 18,276,551 

Value  of  Imports  and  Exports  for  the  Year  Ending 
June  30,  1907 

All  agricultural  exports   $1,147,354,121 

All  agricultural  imports 749,257,584 

Balance  of  trade $398,096,537 

All  other  exports 733,496,957 

All  other  imports 685,163,841 

Balance  of  trade $48,333,116 


TABLE  13 

Values  of  Agricultural  Imports  and  Exports  for  Year  Ending 

June  30,  1907 


Imports 

Exports 

Cattle,  live 

All  other  Hve  animals 

Dairy  products 

$565,122 
3,779,160 
5,832,035 

83,206,545 

12,768,326 

41,534,028 

71,411,899 

5,370,181 

8,337 

396,095 

4,060,371 

129,836 

22,104,235 

$251,166,170 

$34,577,392 
6,625,688 
6,633,226 

Beef 

Hides  and  skins  other  than  furs    .... 
Lard 

31,831,263 

1,760,032 

57,497,980 

66,767,583 

45,599,278 

48,820 

37,709 

Pork 

All  other  packing-house  products   .  .  . 
Wool,  and  hair  of  the  camel,  goat,  etc.. 
Silk 

All  other  animal  matter 

3,419,358 
46,576,226 

Corn  and  corn  meal 

Wheat  and  wheat  flour 

122,389,785 

All  other  grain  and  grain  products  ... 
Flaxseed,  linseed  oil  and  oil  cake    .  .  . 
Alcoholic  liquors 

15,433,139 

16,869,972 

3,314,578 

$459,382,029 

Amoimt  carried  forward 

APPENDIX 
Table  13,  continued 


415 


Imports 

Exports 

Amount  brought  forward 

Cotton 

$251,166,170 
19,930,988 
41,239,538 

66,536,072 
61,884,704 
9,742,883 
92,806,253 
11,883,168 

14,241,109 
14,578,980 
78,231,902 
13,915,544 
26,059,985 
53,040,288 

$749,257,584 

$459,382,029 

481,277,797 

All  other  vegetable  fibers 

Cottonseed,  cottonseed  oil  and  oil  cake 
Rubber 

24,346,490 

All  other  forest  products 

92,948,705 
382,165 
831,162 

Nuts 

Susrar               .... 

Bananas  

All  other  fruits,  dried,  preserved  or 
fresh 

17,206,267 

376,467 

4,989,417 

Cocoa  and  chocolate    

Coffee 

Tea 

Tobacco  

All  other  vegetable  matter 

Total    

33,377,398 
32,236,224 

$1,147,354,121 

416  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 

TABLE  14 
Crop  Statistics  for  Continental  United   States  ^ 


Corn 

Wheat 

Oats 

Barley 

Rye 

Average  num- 
ber of  acres 
1867-1876... 
1877-1886... 
1887-1896... 
1897-1906... 

38,688,449 
63,408,900 
74,290,879 
87,971,235 

21,690,478 
35,062,189 
36.583,809 
45,540,593 

10.195.566 
17,826,840 
26,919,954 
27,689,458 

1,323.839 
2.153.883 
3.164.889 
4.158.986 

1,338,763 
1,936,360 
2,077,653 
1,799,512 

Average    p  r  o  - 
duction  — 
1867-1876... 
1877-1886... 
1887-1896... 
1897-1906... 

Bushels 

1,011,535,800 
1,575,626.651 
1,800,271,093 
2,240,363.473 

Bushels 

258,407,900 
436,726,976 
464,093,443 
631,181.626 

Bushels 

278,267.071 
491,482.427 
686,859,971 
835,644.006 

Bushels 

29.735,169 

48,137,782 

72,117,116 

108,684,958 

Bushels 

18,217,420 
24,880,175 
26,784,385 
28,341,965 

Average    yield 
per  acre — 
1867-1876... 
1877-1886... 
1887-1896... 
1897-1906... 

Bushels 

26.2 
25.1 
24.0 
25.4 

Bushels 

12.0 
12.5 
12.7 
13.8 

Bushels 

27.5 
27.8 
25.5 
30.1 

Bushels 

22.8 
22.4 
22.7 
25.5 

Bushels 

13.6 
13.0 
12.9 
15.7 

Average    total 
value — 
1867-1876... 
1877-1886... 
1887-1896... 
1897-1906... 

$457,000,523 
625,623,878 
633,694,378 
869,575,310 

$262,245,463 
388.867,604 
319,632,591 
431.717,233 

$103,401,326 
157.859.103 
193.005.251 
246.936,311 

$23,030,837 
28,842,694 
33,305,476 
46.158,110 

$14,094,508 
15,454,005 
14,487,116 
15,444,264 

Average  value 
1867-1876... 
1877-1886... 
1887-1896... 
1897-1906... 

Per  bushel. 
Cents 
46.5 
40.3 
36.6 
39.0 

Per  bushel. 
Cents 
103.0 
89.8 
68.7 
68.8 

Per  bushel. 
Cents 
37.5 
32.5 
28.7 
29.4 

Per  bushel 
Cents 
78.3 
60.9 
46.6 
42.1 

Per  bushel. 
Cents 
76.0 
62.8 
53.6 
54.3 

^Calculated  from  Yearbook  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
The  average  yields  per  acre  and  value  per  bushel  as  here  calculated  are  the 
averages  of  the  ten  yearly  averages. 


APPENDIX 


417 


TABLE  14 
Crop  Statistics  for  Continental  United   States 


Hay 

Potatoes 

Buckwheat 

Cotton 

Average  number 

of  acres 

1867-1876  

21,188,781 

1,328,050 

691,863 

1877-1886  

31,931,516 

2,052,491 

803,071 

1887-1896  

46,721,489 

2,651,848 

833,871 

1897-1906  

40,665  523 

2,805,707 

746,764 

Average  pro- 

Tons 

Bushels 

Bushels 

Pounds  of  lint 

duction — 

1867-1876  

25,837,580 

119,028,570 

12,056,270 

1,592,672,300 

1877-1886  

39,379,146 

157,550,905 

11,396,686 

2,711,681,000 

1887-1896  

56,276,752 

200,401,101 

12,656,297 

3,768,380,100 

1897-1906, 

58,393,644 

241,700,116 

13,551,552 

5,242,555,500 

Average  yield  per 

Tons 

Bushels 

Bushels 

acre — 

1867-1876  

1.22 

90.0 

17.6 

1877-1886  

1.24 

81.4 

14.5 

1887-1896  

1.20 

75.0 

15.3 

1897-1906  

1.43 

85.5 

18.1 

Average  total 

value — 

1867-1876  

$292,436,319 

$65,413,492 

$8,837,488 

$232,360,987 

1877-1886  

356,197,702 

82,197,677 

7,240,815 

252,972,074 

1887-1896  

457,121,860 

89,880,929 

6,713,646 

279,492,962 

1897-1906  

489.912,828 

124,812,869 

7,556,820 

468,843,688 

Per  ton. 

Per  bushel. 

Per  bushel. 

Per  pound. 

Average  value 

Cents 

Cents 

Cents 

1867-1876  

Jll  44 

56.4 

72.4 

13.9 

1877-1886  

9  15 

51.4 

65.0 

9.3 

1887-1896  

8  21 

49.0 

53.5 

7.5 

1897-1906  

8  45 

52.2 

55.6 

8.7 

Cane  sugar 

Beet  sugar 

Average  production — 

1867-1876 

Pounds 
134,936,928 
241  586,016 
491,266,048 
633,712.352 

Pounds 
784  000 

1877-1886 

1,318,912 

1887-1896 

29,556,800 

1897-1906 

386,280,832 

418 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


TABLE  15 

Numbers  axd  Values  of  Farm  Anialals  in  Continental 

United  States 


Average 
Total  number 

Average 
Total  value 

Average 

Value 
per  head 

Horses — 
1867-1876  . 

8,122,847 
11,022,680 
14,640,702 
15,787,407 

1,175,543 
1,788,987 
2,280,411 
2,602  373 

9,998,355 
12,616,159 
15,861,965 
16,948,692 

14,957.992 
24,227,144 
35,331,043 
38,463,070 

35.714.438 
43,756,701 
43,652,314 
48,866.599 

27.761.442 
38,821,536 
47,219,664 
45,512,764 

$516,776,357 
693,368,517 
859,623,091 
877,903,759 

92,287,376 
128,281,822 
158,260,797 
176,754,293 

283,515,175 
336,001,308 
360,505,202 
487,693,745 

265,992,932 
475,656,436 
562,422,695 
713.738,958 

80,586,544 

97,979,426 

94,192,051 

134,085,793 

126.707,584 
196,704,251 
237,864,737 
265,059,503 

S63   19 

1877-1886  

62  67 

1887-1896 

59  51 

1897-1906  

54  05 

Mules— 

1867-1876  

77  66 

1877-1886  

71   02 

1887-1896  

09  55 

1897-1906 

Mil  eh  cows — 

1867-1876  

65  25 

28  42 

1877-1886 

26  47 

1887-1896  

22  79 

1897-1906  

28  74 

Other  cattle— 

1867-1876  

17  69 

1877-1886  

19  12 

1887-1896  

15  96 

1897-1906  

18  98 

Sheep — 

1867-1876  

2  27 

1877-1886  

2  23 

1887-1896  

2  15 

1897-1906  

2  72 

Swine— 

1867-1876  

4  58 

1877-1886  

5  02 

1887-1896  

5  04 

1897-1906  

5  72 

I 


TABLE  16 

Various  Statistics  Showing  the   Progress   of  Agriculture   in 

THE  United  States.   (From  Census  Reports.) 


Total 
population 

Number 
of  farms 

Acres  of  farm  land 

Year 

Total 

Improved 

Average  per 
farm 

Total 

Im- 
proved 

1850 

i860 

1870 

1880 

1890 

1900 

23,191,876 
31,443,321 
38,558,371 
50,155,783 
62,622,2.')0 
75,994,575 

1,449,073 
2,044,077 
2,6r,9,985 
4,008.907 
4,.'S64,641 
5,739,657 

293,560,614 
407,212,538 
407,735,041 
536,081,835 
623,218,619 
841,201,546 

113,032,614 
163,110,720 
188,921,099 
284,771,042 
357,616,755 
414,793,191 

202.6 
199.2 
1.53.3 
133.7 
136.5 
146.6 

78.0 
79.8 
71.0 
71.0 

78.3 
72.3 

APPENDIX 


419 


Table  16,  continued 


Year 

Value  of  all  farm 
property 

Value  of  farm  land  with 

impro.vements, 

including  buildings 

Average  value 

of  farm 

implements 

Total 

Value  per 
farm 

Total 

Average 
per  acre 

Per 
farm 

Per 
acre 

1850 

1860     

1870 

1880 

1890 

1900 

$3,967,343,580 
7,980,493,063 
8,944,857,749 
12,180,501,538 
16,082,267,689 
20,514.001,838 

$2,738 
3,904 
3,363 
3,038 
3,523 
3,574 

$3,271,575,426 
6,645,045,007 
7,444,054,462 
10,197,096,776 
13,279,252,649 
16,674,690,247 

$11   14 
16  32 

18  26 

19  02 
21  31 
19  82 

$106 
120 
102 
101 
108 
138 

$0  32 
60 
66 
76 
79 
90 

Value  of  live  stock 

Value  of  farm  products 
not  fed  to  live  stock 

Year 

Total 

Average 

Total 

Average 

Per 
farm 

Per 
acre 

Per 
farm 

Per 
acre 

1850 

1860 

1870 

\^m   

1890 

10(X) 

$544,180,516 
1,089,329,915 
1,229,889.610 
1,576,884.707 
2,308,767.573 
3,078.050,041 

$376 
533 
462 
393 
506 
536 

$1  85 

2  68 

3  02 

2  94 

3  70 
3  66 

$1,958,030,927 
2.212.540.927 
2.460.107.454 
4,739,118,752 

$737 
552 
538 
826 

$4  80 
4  12 
3  95 
6  63 

Year 

Total 
expenditures 
for  fertilizers 

Per  cent 

of 

rented  farms 

Number  of       Nmnber  of 
acres  of      .    y,ox^s\  per 
crops  per             j    ^^^i^ 
male  worker  \ 

1 

Number  of 

acres  of 

crops  per 

horsei 

1880 

1890 

1900      

$28,586,397 
38,469,598 
64,783.757 

25.5 

28.4 
35.3 

23.3                    1.7 
27.5          i           2.2 
31.0         j           2.3 

13.5 
12.4 
13.5 

'Includes  number  of  horses,  mules  and  asses  on  farms. 


420 


ELEMENTS   OF  AGRICULTURE 


TABLE  17 
Average  Wages  of  Farm  Labors 


Per  month 

Per  day 

Per  day 
during  harvest 

Difference 
per  day 

with  and 

without 

board 

Year 

With 
board 

Without 
board 

With 
board 

Without 
board 

With 
board 

Without 
board 

1866 

1869 

1875 

1879 

1882 

1885 

1888 

1890 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

1898 

1899 

1902 

$17  45 
16  55 
12  72 
10  43 
12  41 
12  34 
12  36 
12  45 

12  54 

13  29 
12  16 

12  02 

13  43 

14  07 
16  40 

$26  87 
25  92 
19  87 

16  42 
18  94 

17  97 

18  24 
18  33 

18  60 

19  10 
17  74 
17  69 

19  38 

20  23 
22  14 

$1  08 
1  02 
78 
59 
67 
67 
67 
68 
67 
69 
63 
62 
72 
77 
89 

$1  49 

1  41 

1  08 

81 

93 

91 

92 

92 

92 

89 

81 

81 

96 

1  01 

1  13 

$1  74 
1  74 
1  35 
1  00 
1  15 
1  10 
1  02 
1  02 
1  02 
1  03 
93 
92 
1  05 
1  12 
1  34 

$2  20 
2  20 
1  70 
1  30 
1  48 
1  40 
1  31 
1  30 
1  30 
1  24 
1  13 
1  14 
1  30 
1  37 
1  53 

$0  46 
46 
35 
30 
33 
30 
29 
28 
28 
21 
20 
22 
25 
25 
19 

^Bureau  of  Statistics  Bulletin  No.  26. 


TABLE   18 
RULES 

Measuring  Grain. — A  bushel  of  grain  contains  approximately 
f  cubic  feet.  To  determine  the  capacity  of  a  bin,  find  the  number 
of  cubic  feet  and  multiply  by  |,  or  multiply  by  8  and  divide  by  10. 

Measuring  Ear  Corn. — It  requires  about  two  bushels  of  ear  com 
to  make  one  bushel  shelled.  To  find  the  capacity  of  a  crib,  find  the 
number  of  cubic  feet  and  multiply  by  |  or  ^-. 

Measuring  Hay. — The  quantity  of  hay  in  a  mow  is  very  hard  to 
estimate  accurately.  The  deeper  the  hay  is,  the  harder  it  will  be  packed. 
Some  kinds  of  hay  are  heavier  than  others,  the  longer  it  stands  the 
more  compact  it  becomes.  Settled  hay  will  usually  weigh  about  five 
pounds  per  cubic  foot.   Or,  400  cubic  feet  will  weigh  one  ton. 

Measuring  Land. — The  easiest  way  to  calculate  land  measurements 
is  to  figure  160  square  rods  as  one  acre.  A  strip  one  rod  wide  and  160 
rods  long,  therefore,  equals  an  acre,  as  does  a  strip  four  rods  wide  and 
40  rods  long,  or  eight  rods  wide  and  20  rods  long,  etc. 

A  surveyor's  chain  is  four  rods  long.  It  is  divided  into  100  links, 
so  that  all  calculations  are  in  decimals.  Ten  square  chains  equal  one 
acre. 

Square  Measure  Equivalents 


Sq.  in. 

144= 

1,296= 

39,204= 

6,272,640= 


Sq.  ft. 

1 

9  = 

272i= 

43,560  = 


Sq.  yd. 


Sq.  rod     Acre     Sq.  milo 


1 
30i= 
4,840  = 


1 
160= 


4,014,489,600=27,878,400  =3,097,600  =102,400=640=     1 


INDEX 


Abbreviations,  35. 

Accounts,  importance  of,  380;  kind  to 
keep,  380;  ledger,  382;  methods  of 
keeping,  380;  milk  record,  337;  refer- 
ences, 388;  work  report,  381; 

Acid  phosphate,   123;  fertility  in,  408. 

Addresses  of  colleges  and  experiment 
stations,  403. 

Age  of  horses,  how  told,  308. 

Agricultural  colleges,  addresses  of,  403. 

Agricultural  exports,  414. 

Agricultural  imports,  414. 

Agricultural  technology,  defined,  2. 

Agriculture,  compared  with  manufactur- 
ing, 414;  defined,  1;  divisions  of,  2. 

Alfalfa,  discussion  of,  188;  composition 
of,  284;  culture,  189;  digestibility  of, 
287;  digestible  food  per  acre,  410; 
digestible  nutrients  in,  410;  fertility 
in,  408;  for  hogs,  360;  history,  188; 
inoculation,  118,  192;  lime  for,  126; 
190;  production  value  as  food,  411; 
references,  242;  rotations  with,  279; 
seed,  number  per  pound,  32;  seed, 
source  and  hardiness,  9;  seeding  rate, 
32,  191,  405;  seed  references,  59; 
soils  for,  190;  value  per  ton,  189. 

Alkali,  90;  result  of  canal  seepage,  90. 

Ammonium  sulfate,  122;  fertility  in,  408. 

Animal  food,  importance  of,  281. 

Animal  products,  284. 

Animals,  composition  of,  60. 

Angus  cattle,  325,  327. 

Anther,  defined,  11. 

Apparatus,  400. 

Apple,  adaptation  of  varieties,  9;  care 
of  when  not  bearing,  70;  crown  gall, 
250;  digestible  nutrients  in,  410; 
dwarf,  47;  fertility  in,  408;  maggot, 
258;  original  form,  10;  Paradise  stock 
for  dwarfing,  47;  propagation  of, 
42,  44,  45;  references,  243,  270;  scab, 
253;  spraying,  265. 


Apple  pomace,  digestible  nutrients  m, 
410;  fertiUty  in,  408. 

Apple  worm.    See  Codling  moth. 

Apples,  weight  per  bushel,  406. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  264. 

Asexual  reproduction,  defined,  12. 

Ash,  amount  in  feeds,  283;  function 
of,  in  feeds,  285;  how  determined, 
283. 

Ashes,  lime  in,  128;  fertility  in,  125, 
408. 

Asparagus,  references,  243;  time  to  fer- 
tilize, 70. 

Ayrshire  cattle,  225,  230;  fat  in  milk, 
328. 

Babcock  milk  test,  335;  method  of 
making,  345. 

Bacteria,  described,  97,  248;  impor- 
tance in  soil,  97;  relation  to  agricul- 
ture, 1. 

Balanced  rations,  discussion  of,  292; 
cautions  in  using,  296. 

Bananas,   exports  and  imports,   415. 

Barley,  amount  of  water  required,  67; 
as  a  nurse  crop,  183;  averages  for 
ten-year  periods  in  the  United  States, 
acreage,  production,  yield  per  acre, 
total  value,  value  per  acre,  value  per 
bushel,  416;  crop  of  the  world,.  154; 
digestible  nutrients  in,  410;  fertility 
in,  408;  manure  for,  137;  oats  and 
peas,  182;  production  value  as  feed, 
412;  rotations  with,  277;  seed  vital- 
ity, 405;  seeding  rate,  405;  value  of 
United  States  crop,  155,  413,  416; 
weight  per  bushel,  406;  weight  per 
quart,  412. 

Barley  meal,  weight  per  quart,  412. 

Barley  straw,  fertility  in,  408. 

Barnyard  manure.   See  Manure. 

Basic  slag,  124. 

Bathroom,  391. 


(421) 


422 


INDEX 


Bean,  blight  of,  250;  fertility  in,  408; 
inoculation,  192;  references,  243; 
seed  vitality,  405;  seeding  rate,  405; 
weight  per  bushel,  406. 

Bean  straw,  digestible  nutrients  in,  410; 
fertility  in,  408. 

Bedding,  effect  on  manure,  138. 

Beef,  production,  333;  exports  and  im- 
ports, 414;  references,  349. 

Bee-keeping,   reference,   271. 

Beet,  lime  requiremsnt,  126;  seed 
vitality,  405.  See  Sugar  beet  and 
Mangel. 

Begonia,  propagation  of,  42. 

Belgian  horses,  307,  308. 

Berkshire  hogs,  358,  360. 

Bermuda  grass,  187. 

Birds,  reference,  271. 

Bits,  312. 

Black-leg,  341. 

Black-knot,  251. 

Blight,  fire,  249;  potato,  254. 

Blinders,    313. 

Blood,  dried,  as  a  fertilizer,  123;  diges- 
tible nutrients  in,  410;  fertility  in,  408. 

Blossom,  parts  of,  11. 

Blue-grass,  185;  reproduction  of,  38; 
seed,  cause  of  poor,  54;  seeding,  rate, 
186,  196,  197,  405;  weight  per  bushel, 
406. 

Boll-weevil.    Se»  Cotton  boll-weevil. 

Book-keeping.   See  Accounts. 

Bone  meal,  as  a  fertilizer,  123,  124; 
fertility  in,  408;  for  hogs,  286. 

Bordeaux  mixture,  261;  preparation  of, 
263,  269. 

Botany,  relation  to  agriculture,  1. 

Bran,  weight  per  bushel,  406. 

Bread  mold,  251. 

Breathing  pores,  67. 

Breeding,  chapter  on,  5;  cattle,  19,  21, 
22,  23;  farms,  31;  horses,  19,  23;  plant 
vs.  animal,  23;  references,  34,  35; 
steps  in,  21.   See  Com,  Cotton,  etc. 

Brewers'  grains,  digestible  nutrients  in, 
410;  fertility  in,  408;  production  value 
as  feed,  412;  weight  per  quart,  412. 

Brome  grass,  186;  seeding  rate,  405. 

Broom-corn,  references,  243. 

Brown-rot,  252. 


Brown-Swiss  cattle,  325,  328. 

Brown-tail  moth,  references,  271. 

Buckwheat,  averages  for  ten-year 
periods  in  the  United  States,  acreage, 
production,  yield  per  acre,  total 
value,  value  per  acre,  value  per 
bushel,  417;  digestible  nutrients  in, 
410;  effect  of  time  of  plowing  on,  165; 
fertility  in,  408;  for  green-manure, 
147;  references,  243;  seed  vitality, 
405;  seeding  rate,  405;  weight  per 
bushel,  406. 

Buckwheat  bran,  digestible  nutrients 
in,   410. 

Buckwheat  middlings,  digestible  nu- 
trients in,  410;  fertility  in,  408. 

Budding,  43. 

Buffalo  grass,  37. 

Buildings,  farm  houses,  391;  poultry, 
366;  references,  349,  362,  371,  388, 
395. 

Bur-clover,  206. 

Butter,  references,  350;  value  of,  413; 
world's-record  cow,  332. 

Buttermilk,  digestible  nutrients  in,  410. 

Cabbage,  black-rot,  250;  digestible  nu- 
trients in,  410;  fertility  in,  408;  seed 
vitality,  405;  seeding  rate,  405;  worm, 
259. 

Calcium  carbonate,  127. 

Calcium,  food  for  plants  and  animals, 
60,  62. 

Calves.  See  Cattle. 

Cambium  layer,  43,  231. 

Canada  blue-grass,   186. 

Canada  field  peas.    See  Peas. 

Cantaloupe,  lime  requirement,  126. 

Capillary  movement  of  water  in  soils, 
85. 

Capital,  importance  of,  377;  invest- 
ments in  agriculture  and  manufac- 
turing compared,  414. 

Carbohydrates,  fat  equivalent  of,  284; 
function  of  in  feeds,  286;  in  feeds,  284; 
manufacture  of,  by  plants,  68. 

Carbon,  amount  in  plants,  63;  food  for 
plants  and  animals,  60,  61,  67. 

Carbonate  of  lime,  127. 

Carbonic  acid  gas.    See  Carbon. 


I 
I 


INDEX 


423 


Carrot,  digestible  nutrients  in,  410; 
fertility  in,  408;  production  value  as 
feed,  412;  seed  vitality,  405;  seeding 
rate,  405. 

Cattle,  chapter  on,  323;  averages  for 
ten-year  periods  in  the  United  States, 
total  number,  total  value,  value  per 
head,  418;  beef  and  dairy  contrasted, 
323;  breeding,  19,  21,  22,  23,  333,  337; 
breeds  of,  322;  care  of  297,  324;  com- 
position of,  285;  computing  rations 
for,  293;  cottonseed  for,  212;  diseases, 
337;  exports  and  imports,  414;  feed- 
ing references,  299;  feeding  standards, 
292,  296,  409;  fertility  of  food  re- 
covered in  manure,  138;  grading  up  a 
herd,  333,  337;  manure,  composition 
and  value  of,  138,  139,  140;  manure, 
feed  recovered  in,  138;  milk  of  dif- 
ferent breeds  compared,  328;  num- 
bers of,  357,  418;  origin  of  polled,  8; 
products,  333;  rate  of  depreciation, 
387;  references,  299,  349;  score  cards, 
342,  343;  stables  for,  297;  types  of, 
323;  value  of,  357,  418;  value  of  ma- 
nure, 138,  140. 

Celery,  references,  243;  seed  vitality, 
405. 

Cement  floor,  for  poultry  houses,  367; 
manure  saved  by,  143. 

Certified  milk,  336. 

Cesspool,  392. 

Cheese,  references,  349;  value  of,  413. 

Chemistry,  relation  to  agriculture,  1. 

Cherries,  black-knot  of,  251;  brown-rot 
of,  252;  propagation  of,  42,  44,  45. 

Cheshire  hogs,  350,  359. 

Chester  White  hogs,  358,  360. 

Chestnut,  grafting,  42. 

Cheviot  sheep,  35. 

Chickens.   See  Poultry. 

Chinch-bug,  control  of,  259. 

Chlorin,  food  for  plants  and  animals, 
60,  62. 

Chocolate,  exports  and  imports,  415. 

Choice  of  a  farm,  372. 

Citrus  fruits,  references,  243,  271. 

Climate,  effect  of  forests  on,  220;  for 
alfalfa,  190;  for  corn,  157;  for  cotton, 
199,  205;  .or  oats,  181;  for  potatoes 


and  roots,  160;  for  wheat,  180;  ques- 
tions  on,    237. 

Clover,  alsike,  194;  soils  for  alsike,  194; 
bur-,  206;  composition  of,  284;  diges- 
tible food  per  acre,  189;  digestible 
nutrients  in,  410;  digestibility  of, 
287;  fertiUty  in,  408;  for  horses,  312; 
green-manure,  147;  inoculation,  192; 
lime  requirement,  126;  method  of 
reproduction,  12;  production  value, 
as  feed,  292,  411;  red,  193;  references, 
59,  152,  242;  reproduction  of,  36; 
seed,  good  and  poor,  52;  seed  mix- 
tures with  grass,  195;  seed  vitality, 
405;  seed  weight  per  bushel,  406; 
seeding  rate,  193,  195,  196,  197,  405; 
time  to  cut,  70,  71;  varieties  adapted 
to  pasture,  36;  water  requirement, 
67;  white,   195. 

Cion,  effect  of  root  on  stock,  47. 

Clydesdale  horses,  307,  308. 

Coal,  weight  per  bushel,  406. 

Cocoa,  exports  and  imports,  415. 

Codling-moth,  life  history  and  control 
of,  257,  258. 

Coffee,  exports  and  imports,  415. 

Collateral  readings,  3,  34,  59,  74,  108, 
152,  242,  270,  280,  299,  321,  349, 
356,  361,  371,  388,  395,  399,  401,  403; 
how  to  secure  bulletins,  401;  list  of 
books,  402. 

Colleges,  addresses  of,  403. 

Concentrates  compared  with  roughage, 
189,  291,  411. 

Condensed  milk,  336. 

Condimental  feeds,  298. 

Com,  chapter  on,  156;  averages  for  ten- 
year  periods  in  the  United  States, 
acreage,  production,  yield,  per  acre 
total  value,  value  per  acre,  value  per 
bushel,  416;  barren  stalks,  281; 
breeding,  21,  25;  broken  stalks,  28; 
climate  for,  157;  composition  of,  63, 
284;  composition  at  different  stages 
of  growth,  175;  composition  of  dent 
and  flint,  162;  cost  compared  with 
oats,  182;  cultivation,  depth  for,  170; 
dent,  162;  digestible  food  per  acre, 
160;  digestible  nutriente  in,  410- 
digestibility   of,    287,    290,    291;    dis- 


424 


INDEX 


tribution  erf,  156;  ears,  ideal,  49;  ear- 
row  test,  26;  exports  and  imports, 
177,  414;  fertility  in,  408;  fertilizers 
for,  132,  163;  fitting  the  land  for,  166; 
flint,  162;  germination  tests,  48;  green- 
manure  crops  seeded  with,  147;  har- 
vesting methods  and  costs,  171;  his- 
tory, 156;  Ume  requirement,  126; 
method  of  measuring  in  cribs,  420; 
method  of  testing  germination,  48; 
method  of  storing  seed,  26,  54;  nativ- 
ity of,  154;  original  form  of,  10; 
planting  depth,  167  168;  planting 
methods  167;  planting  rate,  166,  174, 
405;  plowing  for,  163;  pollination  of, 
12;  pod,  161;  pop,  161;  production 
value  as  feed,  411;  reasons  for  grow- 
ing, 159;  references,  34,  59,  242,  300, 
362;  roots,  171;  root-worm,  254;  rota- 
tions with,  278,  279;  score  card,  238; 
stands,  poor,  48;  seed,  storing,  26; 
seed  testing,  54;  seed  vitality,  405; 
smut,  36,  254;  soft,  161;  suckers,  28; 
sweet,  162;  time  required  to  grow  one 
bushel,  301;  types,  of  161;  uses  of, 
177;  value  of  the  crop,  155,  413,  416; 
varieties,  162;  varieties,  composition 
of,  162;  varieties  for  the  silo,  175; 
water  required,  67;  weight  per  bushel, 
406;   weight  per  quart,  412. 

Corn-and-cob  meal,  digestible  nutrients 
in,  410;  production  value  as  feed, 
412;  weight  per  quart,  412. 

Com  bran,  weight  per  quart,  412. 

Corn  cobs,  fertility  in,  408. 

Corn  fodder,  defined,  172;  digestible 
nutrients  in,  410;  fertility  in,  408; 
production  value  as  feed,  411. 

Corn,  kafir. 

Corn  meal,  maintenance  value,  290, 
291;  production  value,  291;  weight 
per  bushel,  406;  weight  per  quart, 
412. 

Corn  silage,  discussion  of,  171;  digestible 
nutrients  in,  410;  effect  of  frost  on, 
175;  effect  on  milk,  176;  feeding,  176; 
fertility  in,  408;  production  value  as 
feed,  411;  time  to  cut  for,  174;  vs. 
fodder,  172. 

Corn    stover,    defined,    192;    digestible 


nutrients  in,  410;  fertility  in,  408; 
production  value  as  feed,  411. 

Cotswold  sheep,  351,  354. 

Cottolene,  212. 

Cotton,  chapter  on,  198;  averages  for 
ten-year  periods  in  the  United  States, 
production,  total  value,  value  per 
pound,  417;  bale,  size  of,  211;  breed- 
ing, 29,  202;  climate  for,  199,  205; 
crop  value  and  yields,  155,  198,  199, 
201,  413;  cultivating,  209;  diseases 
and  insects,  214;  exports  and  imports, 
198,  415;  fertility  in  lint,  meal  and 
seed,  408;  fertilizers  for,  208;  grades, 
211;  green-manure  crops  with,  147; 
habits  of  growth,  200;  harvesting, 
210;  history,  199;  lint,  per  cent  of, 
202;  marketing,  211;  planting,  209; 
plowing  for,  207;  rotations  with,  279; 
references,  35,  242,  270;  seed,  heavy 
vs.  light,  53;  seeding  rate,  210,  405; 
soils  for,  206. 

Cotton  boll-weevil,  214,  257. 

Cotton  boll-worm,  215. 

Cottonseed,  products,  212;  weight  per 
bushel,  406. 

Cottonseed  meal,  212;  composition,  214; 
production  value  as  feed,  412;  weight 
per  quart,  412. 

Cottonwood,  propagation  of,  41. 

Cows.   See  Cattle. 

Cowpea,  as  green-manure,  147,  206; 
inoculation,  118;  digestible  nutrients 
in,  410;  lime  requirement  of,  126; 
production  value  as  feed,  411;  refer- 
ences, 243;  rotations  with,  279;  seed- 
ing rate,  405. 

Cranberries,  reference,  243,  271. 

Cream  separator,  references,  349. 

Cropping,  chapter  on  systems  of,  272. 

Crops,  choice  of,  272;  diversified,  273; 
relative    importance    of,     154,     155. 

Crop  rotations.     See  Rotation  of  crops. 

Cross-fertilization,  12. 

Crossmg  plants,  methods  of,  13;  when 
desirable.  19. 

Crown-gall,  250. 

Crude  fiber,  284. 

Cucumber,  beetle,  261;  references,  243, 
270;  seed  vitality,  405;  wilt,  250. 


INDEX 


425 


Culm,  defined,  37. 
Cultivator,  169. 
Currants,  propagation  of,  41. 
Cuttings,  41. 

Dairying.  See  Cattle  and  Milk. 

De  CandoUe's  law,  9. 

De-horning  cattle,  references,  350. 

Delaine  merino  sheep,  351,  352. 

Devon  cattle,  325.  328. 

Digestibility,  effect  of  time  of  harvest- 
ing on,  288. 

Digestible  nutrients  in  feeds,  410; 
method  of  finding,  288. 

Diseases.  See  Plant  diseases,  Cattle,  etc. 

Disinfectants,  references,  270. 

Disk-harrow,  166. 

Distillers'  grains,  weight  per  quart,  412. 

Dodder,  191,  254. 

Dog,  fencing  to  protect  sheep,  355; 
intelligence  of,  315. 

Dominant  character,  defined,  16. 

Dorset  horn  sheep,  351,  354. 

Double-tree,  effect  of  height  on  draft, 
306. 

Drainage,  by  the  government,  94;  effect 
during  drought,  92;  effect  on  temper- 
ature, 82;  for  removal  of  alkali,  90; 
kinds  of,  93;  laying  tile,  93;  necessity 
for,  91;  references,  108. 

Dried  blood.    See  Blood. 

Dry-land  farming,  85,  87. 

Dry  matter,  how  determined,  72. 

Ducks,  reference,  371. 

Durham.    See  Shorthorn. 

Duroc-Jersey  hogs,  358,  360. 

Dust  mulch,  85. 

Dutch  belted  cattle,  325. 

Earthworms,  97. 

Eggs,  as  food,  reference,  300;  compo- 
sition of,  285;  parts  of,  368;  value  of, 
363. 

Eggplant,  seed  vitality,  405. 

Embryo,  defined,  11,  47. 

Emmer,  reference,  300. 

English  Shire  horse,  307,  308 

Environment,  defined,  2,  3. 

Equipment,  400. 

Essex  hogs,  358,  360. 


Ether  extract.   See  Fat. 
Evaporation  of  soil-water,  85. 
Experiment  stations,  addresses  of,  403. 
Exports,  414. 

Fanning-mill,  value  of,  54. 

Farm,  best  size  of,  373;  how  to  choose, 
372;  score  card,  385;  topography,  375. 

Farms,  averages  for  ten-year  periods 
in  the  United  States,  number  of 
farms,  total  acreage,  average  size, 
average  improved  area,  value  of  all 
farm  property,  value  per  farm,  value 
of  land,  value  per  acre,  average  size  of 
farms,  average  improved  acreage, 
value  of  live-stock,  average  per  farm, 
average  per  acre,  value  of  products, 
value  per  farm,  value  per  acre,  per 
cent  of  rented  farms,  number  of 
acres  per  male  worker,  number  of 
acres  per  horse,  average  wages  of 
labor,  418,  419,  420. 

Farm  accounts.    See  Accounts. 

Farm  buildings.    See  Buildings. 

Farm   community,   chapter  on,   396. 

Farm  home,  chapter  on,  389;  references, 
395. 

Farm  house,  modem  improvements  for, 
391;  type  of  building,  391. 

Farm  income  defined,  387. 

Farm  labor.    See  Labor. 

Farm  management,  chapter  on,  372; 
references,  388. 

Farm  products,  total  value,  value  per 
farm  and  per  acre,  419. 

Farm  property,  compared  with  that  in 
manufacturing,    414;    value   of,    414, 
419;  value  per  farm,  419. 

Farm  records.  See  Accounts. 

Farmyard,  389. 

Fat,  defined,  283;  cabohydrate  equiva- 
lent of,  286,  293;  compared  with  car- 
bohydrates,  68;   composition  of,   68; 
function    of,    286;    how    determined, 
283;  in  feeds,  283. 

Feeding,  chapter  on,  281;  horses,  311; 
poultry,  365;  standards,  293,  409; 
references,  299,  349. 

Feeds,  chapter  on,  281;  balanced  rations 
292;  cautions  in  using  balanced  ration. 


426 


INDEX 


296;  composition  of,  282;  computing 
rations,  293;  condimental,  298;  di- 
gestibility of,  287;  effect  of  time  of 
harvesting  on,  71,  183;  fertility  of, 
recovered  in  manure,  138;  functions 
of,  285;  maintenance  values  of,  289; 
nutritive  ratio,  293;  production 
values  of,  289,  411;  references,  299; 
relative  values  of  concentrates  and 
roughage,  189,  291,  411;  weed  seeds 
in,  reference,  270. 

Fences,  for  sheep,  355;  trees  for  posts 
in,  225. 

Fertility  of  the  land,  chapter  on,  109. 
See  Soil  fertility. 

Fertilization  of  blossoms,  12. 

Fertilizers,  amount  spent  for,  116,  419; 
analyses,  129;  cost,  129;  effect  of  too 
strong,  66;  estimating  value,  130; 
for  alfalfa,  190;  for  corn,  132,  163; 
for  cotton,  208;  grass,  132,  183; 
legumes,  132;  oats,  132,  181;  wheat, 
132,  180;  home-mixing,  131;  materials 
used  as,  114;  references,  152,  153; 
valuation,  129;  when  and  what  to 
use,  111,  114,  132,  163,  181,  183, 
184,  208.  See  Nitrogen,  Phosphorus, 
Potassium,  Lime,  Manure,  Green- 
manure. 

Fertilizing  constituents  in  various 
substances,  408, 

Fiber,  crude,  284. 

Fields,  arrangement  of,  223,  276;  shape 
and  location,  374. 

Filament,  defined,  11. 

Fire-blight,  249. 

Fish  as  food,  reference,  300. 

Flax,  seeding  rate,  405;  seed  vitality, 
405. 

Flax-seed,  exports  and  imports,  414; 
value  of  crop,  413;  weights  per  bushel, 
406. 

Flea-beetle,  control  of,  261. 

Floats,  124;  as  reinforcement  for 
manure,  144,  149. 

Flocculation,   83. 

Flowers,  389. 

Fly,  life  history  of,  256. 

Fodder,    See  Com. 

Food,  stored  in  seeds,  47. 


Forest,  discussion  of,  216;  area  in 
United  States,  216;  conservative 
management  of,  221;  destruction  of, 
217;  effect  on  climate,  220;  impor- 
tance of  to  irrigation,  89,  220;  profits 
from  wood  lots,  222;  references,  243 
relation  of  the  government  to,  218 
reserves,  219;  trees  to  plant,  226 
wood-lot  management,  222. 

Forest  products,  exports  and  imports, 
415;  value  of,  155,  413. 

Fowls.    See  Poultry. 

French  coach  horses,  307. 

Fumigation  of  nursery  stock,  references, 
270. 

Fungi,  attacking  tree  trunks,  231; 
description  and  control  of,  250,  261. 

Fungicides,  260;  references,  270. 

Fur,  exports  and  imports  of,  414. 

Galloway  cattle,  325,  327. 

Gal  ton's  law,  5. 

Gametes,    defined,     12;    See    Mendel's 

law,  14. 
Garden,   management   of,    235;    profits 

from,  234;  school,  references,  371. 
Geese,  references,  371. 
Geology,  relation  to  agriculture,  1. 
Geranium,  propagation  of,  41. 
German  coach  horses,  307. 
Germination^    importance   of    vigorous, 

48;  method  of  testing,  48,  51. 
Germ  oil  meal,  weight  per  quart,  413. 
Gipsy  moth,  references,  271. 
Gluten    meal,    digestible    nutrients    in, 

410;  fertiUty  in,  408;  from  corn,  177; 

production  value  as  feed,  412;  weight 

per  quart,  413. 
Grafting,    discussion   of,    42;    root,    45; 

top,  46. 
Graf  ting- wax,  rule  for  making,  56. 
Grain,  method  of    measuring    in    bins. 

420. 
Grapes,  propagation  of,  41;  references, 

271. 
Grasses,  discussion  of,   182. 
Grass,  and  clover  mixtures,  195;  effect 

on  soil  fertility,    120;   fertilizers  for, 

132,   183;    reproduction  of,   37;   soils 

for,  82     See  Meadows,  Timothy,  etc- 


INDEX 


427 


Grasshoppc.s   ;ife  history,  257. 

Green-manure,  discussion  of,  147,  206; 
crops  for,  reference,  152. 

Guano,  fertility  in,  408. 

Guernsey  cattle,  325,  330,  332;  fat  in 
milk  of,  328. 

Gypsum,  128;  reinforcement  for  ma- 
nure, 144,  149. 

Hackney  horses,  307,  308. 

Hampshiredown  sheep,  351,  354. 

Hampshire  hogs,  358,  359,  360. 

Harrow,  166. 

Haustoria,  defined,  251. 

Hay,  averages  for  ten-year  periods  in 
the  United  States,  acreage,  produc- 
tion, yield  per  acre,  total  value,  value 
per  acre,  value  per  ton,  417;  method 
of  measuring,  420;  value  of  the  crop, 
155,  413,  416. 

Heaves,  194,  312. 

Hens,  composition  of,  285.  See  Poultry. 

Hereditary  power,  testing,  22. 

Heredity,  defined,  2;  problems  of,   13. 

Hereford  cattle,  325,  327;  origin  of 
polled,  8. 

Hides,  exports  and  imports,  414. 

Hogs,  chapter  on,  357;  ash  for,  285; 
averages  for  ten-year  periods  in  the 
United  States,  total  number,  total 
value,  value  per  head,  418;  breeds  of, 
358;  care  of,  360;  composition  of,  285; 
cots,  reference,  362;  cottonseed  for, 
212;  diseases,  337,  361;  distribution 
of,  357;  feeding  standards,  409;  feed- 
ing references,  299,  362;  manure, 
amount  and  value  per  year,  139; 
numbers  of,  357,  418;  references, 
299,  361;  regions  adapted  to,  177; 
values  of,  357,  418. 

Holstein  cattle,  325,  329,  332;  fat  in 
milk  of,  328. 

Home.  See  Farm  home. 

Hominy  feed,  digestible  nutrients  in, 
410;  fertili'Ly  in,  408;  weight  per 
quart,  413. 

Hops,  vitality  of  seed,  405,  references, 
243. 

Horses,  chapter  on,  301;  averages  for 
ten-year  periods  in  the  United  States, 


total  number,  total  value,  value  per 
head,  418;  age,  how  told,  308; 
amount  pulled  by,  306;  ash  for,  286; 
breeding  of,  19,  23,  307;  docking,  314; 
care  of,  311;  classes  of  draft,  305; 
clipping,  313;  conformation  for  draft 
and  speed,  303;  corn  for,  182;  cotton- 
seed for,  212;  draft  and  speed  com- 
pared, 303;  driving,  rules  of  road, 
316;  effect  of  clover  on,  194;  effect  of 
low  double-tree  on  power,  306;  feed- 
ing, 311;  feeding  references,  299; 
feeding  standards,  293,  409;  good 
proportions  for,  318;  heaves,  312; 
intelligence  of,  315;  importance  of, 
301;  manure  composition,  amount, 
value,  139,  140;  numbers  of,  357,  418; 
number  of  acres  per  horse,  419; 
number  per  man,  301,  419;  on  farms 
vs.  horse-power  in  factories,  414; 
over-check,  313;  rate  of  depreciation, 
387;  references,  299,  321;  score  card 
for,  319;  silage  for,  176;  sore  should- 
ers, 313;  training,  315;  types,  of  302; 
values  of,  357,  418;  weight  for  draft 
and  speed,  305. 

Hot-bed,  236. 

House-fly,  256,  258. 

Humus.  See  Soil  humus. 

Hungarian  grass,  digestible  nutrients 
in,  410 ;  production  value  as  feed, 
411. 

Hybrid,  defined,  13. 

Hydrogen,  food  for  plants  and  animals, 
60,  61. 

Imports,  414. 

Improvement  of  plants  and  animals,  5. 

Indian  com.   See  Com. 

Insecticides,  260;  references,  270. 

Insects,   discussion  of,   255;    beneficial, 

255;  control  of,  258;  damages  caused 

by,  255;  defined,  255;  stages  in  life  of, 

256. 
Iron,   amount  in   plants,   63;   food  for 

plants  and  animals,  60,  62. 
Irrigation,    area    irrigated,    88;     areas 

requiring,  88;    canals,  seepage  from, 

90;  dangers  of,  90;  in  Egypt,  89;  in 

India,  89;  reservoirs,  89. 


428 


INDEX 


Jersey  cattle,  325,  329,  332;  fat  in  milk 
of,  328. 

Johnson  grass,  188;  control  of,  refer- 
ence, 270. 

Kafir  com,  references,  243. 
Kainit,  125;  fertility  in,  408;  reinforce- 
ment for  manure,  144,  149. 
Kentucky   blue-grass.     See   Blue-grass. 
Kerosene  emulsion,  preparation  of,  265. 

Labor,  discussion  of,  377;  average 
wages,  420;  saving,  82,  144,  160,  167, 
170,  272,  275,  301,  373,  374,  375,  377, 
378;  supply,  376. 

Labor  reports.   See  Accounts. 

Laboratory  equipment,  400. 

Laboratory  exercises,  32,  56,  72,  101, 
151,  238,  267,  280,  318,  342,  368, 
385,  395. 

Land,  method  of  measuring,  420. 

Land  plaster,  128;  reinforcement  for 
manure,  144,  149. 

Lambs.  See  Sheep. 

Larva,  defined,  256. 

Ledger,  382. 

Legal  weights  per  bushel,  406. 

Leghorn  hens,  364. 

Legumes,  as  food,  reference,  300;  fer- 
tilizer requirements,  132;  inoculation 
of,  118,  192;  nitrogen  fixation  by, 
116;  nodules  on  the  roots  of,  117. 

Leicester  sheep,  351. 

Lemons,  references,  243,  271. 

Lettuce,  lime  requirement,  126;  seed 
vitality,  405. 

Library,  401. 

Lincoln  sheep,  351. 

Linseed  meal,  digestible  nutrients  in, 
410;  fertility  in,  408;  production 
value  as  feed,  412;  weight  per  quart, 
413. 

Lime,  application  of,  128;  forms  of, 
127;  for  alfalfa,  190;  how  to  tell  the 
need  of,  127;  references,  152;  weight 
per  bushel,  406. 

Lime-sulfur  spray,  preparation  of,  265. 

Limestone,  127. 

Listing  corn,  167. 

Live-stock,  importance  of  in  maintain- 


ing fertility,  110;  total  value,  value 
per  farm  and  per  acre,  419. 

Machinery,  rate  of  depreciation,  387; 
value  per  farm  and  per  acre,  419. 

Magnesium,  food  for  plants  and  animals, 
60,  62. 

Maintenance  values  of  feeds,  289,  411. 

Maize.   See  Com. 

Malt  sprouts,  digestible  nutrients  in, 
410;  fertiUty  in,  408;  production 
value  as  feed,  412;  weight  per  quart, 
413. 

Mangels,  digestible  nutrients  in,  410; 
fertility  in,  408;  production  value  as 
feed,  412;  seeding  rate,  405. 

Manure,  discussion  of,  135;  amount 
produced  per  year,  139;  application 
of,  142,  144,  184;  composition  of,  140; 
factors  affecting  value  of,  138;  fertility 
of  food  recovered  in,  138;  green  crops 
for,  147;  importance  of,  135;  lasting 
effects  of,  136;  liquid  composition 
and  value,  140;  losses  of,  140;  pre- 
servation of,  143;  references,  152; 
reinforcement  of,  142,  144,  149, 
spreader,  144;  value  in  the  United 
States,  135;  value  per  ton,  136,  140; 
value  per  year,  different  animals,  139. 

Maple  sugar,  references,  243. 

Meadows,  discussion  of,  182;  method  of 
seeding,  182;  references,  242;  rota- 
tions with,  278,  279;  seeding  mixtures, 
196. 

Meadow-fescue,  186;  seeding  rate,  196, 
197. 

Meat  on  the  farm,  reference,  349. 

Meat-scrap,  digestible  nutrients,  in  410. 

Melon  beetle,  261. 

Mendel,  biographical  notes,  14. 

Mendel's  law,  14;  summary  of,  15;  ap- 
plications of,  19. 

Merino  sheep,  351. 

Meteorology,  relation  to  agriculture,  1. 
See  Climate. 

Milk,  discussion  of,  334;  as  food,  62, 
334;  as  food,  reference,  300;  Babcock 
test  of,  336,  345;  clean,  334;  certified, 
336;  composition  of,  285,  334;  con- 
densed, 336;   digestible,  nutrients  in 


INDEX 


429 


410;  effect  of  silage  on,  176;  fertility 
in,  408;  flour,  336;  of  different  breeds, 
328;  pails,  335;  pasteurized,  335; 
powder,  336;  records,  337;  references, 
300,  349:  standardized,  336;  test, 
336,  345;  value  of,  413. 

Milk-fever,  340. 

Millet,  references,  243;  seed  vitality,  405. 
seeding  rate,  405;  weight  per  bushel, 
406. 

Milo,  reference,  243. 

Modern  conveniences  for  the  home,  391. 

Mold,  bread,  251. 

Mosquito,  control  of,  94,  258;  life  his- 
tory of,  257. 

Mules,  averages  for  ten-year  periods  in 
the  United  States,  total  number, 
total  value,  value  per  head,  418. 

Muriate  of  potash,  125. 

Muskmelon,  seed  vitality,  405. 

Mustard,  spraying  for,  246;  seed  vitality, 
405. 

Mutations,  8. 

Mutton,  references,  356. 

Mycelium,  defined,  250. 

Natural  selection,  7;  development  of 
weeds  by,  8. 

Neighbors,  376,  396. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  122;  composition  of, 
408;  effect  on  timothy,  132,  133. 

Nitrate  of  potash,  composition  of,  408. 

Nitrogen,  amount  in  air,  116;  amount 
in  plants,  63;  amount  in  rainfall,  116; 
amount  in  soils,  113;  effect  of  time 
of  plowing  on,  164;  effect  on  color  of 
plants,  64;  fixation  with  legumes,  116, 
208;  fixation  without  legumes,  119; 
food  for  plants  and  animals,  60,  61; 
forms  of  in  fertilizers,  122;  in  manure, 
136,  139,  140,  141;  losses  of,  121; 
losses  from  manure,  141;  of  food 
recovered  in  manure,  138;  per  cent 
of  in  protein,  283;  relation  to  soil 
organisms,   97;    sources  of,    116. 

Nitrogen-free  extract,  284. 

Nutrients,  amount  of  in  various  feeds, 
410. 

Nutritive  ratio,  defined,  293. 

Nuts,  exports  and  imports,  415. 


Oats,  181;  as  a  nurse  crop,  183,  190; 
averages  for  ten-year  periods  in  the 
United  States,  acreage,  production, 
yield  per  acre,  total  value,  value  per 
acre,  value  per  bushel,  416;  breeding, 
29;  climate  for,  181;  cost  compared 
with  corn,  182;  digestible  food  per 
acre,  160;  digestible  nutrients  in, 
410;  fertiUty  in,  408;  fertilizers  for, 
131,  133,  181;  ground,  weight  per 
quart,  413;  planting  depth,  168;  pro- 
duction value  as  feed,  292,  412; 
references,  270;  rotations  with,  270; 
soils  for,  181;  uses  of,  181;  value 
of  the  United  States  crop,  155,  413; 
seed  vitality,  405;  seeding  rate,  405; 
water  requirements,  67;  weight  per 
bushel,  406;  weight  per  quart,  413; 
world's  crop  of,  154. 

Oats-barley-and-peas,  182. 

Oat  hay,  production  value  as  feed,  411. 

Oat  rust,  36. 

Oat  smut,  36;  control  of,  254. 

Oat  straw,  fertility  in,  408;  digestible 
nutrients  in,  410;  production  value 
as  feed,  412. 

Onions,  lime  required,  126;  references, 
243;  seed  vitality,  405;  weight  per 
bushel,   406. 

Oranges,  propagation  of,  42;  references, 
34,   271,  243. 

Orchards,  discussion  of,  227;  planting, 
227;  pruning,  230;  spraying,  229,  266; 
tillage  of,  228;  value  of  products,  413. 

Orchard  grass,  187;  reproduction  of, 
38;  seeding  rate,  196,  197;  seed 
vitality,  405. 

Osmosis,  definition  and  experiment,  65. 

Ovary,  defined,  11. 

Oxford-down  sheep,  351,  354. 

Oxygen,  as  food  for  plants  and  animals, 
60,  61. 

Paris  green,  264. 

Parsnip,  seed  vitaUty,  405. 

Pasteurized  milk,  335. 

Pasture,  discussion  of,  182;  adaptation 

of  clover  and  grass  varieties,  36,  39; 

management  of,  197;  references,  242; 

seed  mixtures  for,  196. 


430 


INDEX 


Peaches,  brown-rot  of,  252;  danger  in 
spraying,  262;  propagation  of.  42,  43, 
45;   references,  243. 

Peanut,  inoculation,  192;  seed  vitality, 
405. 

Pears,  how  dwarfed,  47;  propagation  of, 
42,  45;  references,  243. 

Pear-blight,  249. 

Peas,  fertility  in,  408;  inoculation  of, 
192;  seed  vitality,  405;  weight  per 
bushel,  406. 

Peas-and-barley,  digestible  nutrients  in, 
410. 

Peas-and-oats,  digestible  nutrients  in, 
410. 

Peas-barley-and-oats,  182. 

Pea-vine  silage,  digestible  nutrients  in, 
410. 

Pea-vine  straw,  digestible  nutrients  in, 
410;  fertility  in,  408. 

Pecan,  grafting,  42. 

Pedigreees,  330;  advanced  registry,  333; 
value  of,  331. 

Percheron   horses,   popularity   of,    307. 

Perennial,  defined,  38. 

Phosphoric  acid.   See  Phosphorus. 

Phosphorus,  amount  in  soils,  113,  114; 
comparative  effects  of  different  forms, 
133;  deficiency  in  soils,  134;  effect  on 
seed  formation,  64;  food  for  plants 
and  animals,  60,  62;  forms  of  in  fer- 
tiUzers,  123;  in  manure,  136,  139,  140, 
141;  losses  from  manure,  141;  of 
food  recovered  in  manure,  138; 
reinforcement  for  manure,  142,  144, 
149;  relation  to  Hme,  132. 

Physics,  relation  to  agriculture,  1. 

Pigs.  See  Hogs. 

Pineapple,  references,  34,  243. 

Pistil,  defined,  11. 

Plants,  composition  of,  60;  oeriods  in  the 
life  of,  69;  storage  of  food  in,  69;  the 
only  source  of  starch,  69. 

Plant-breeding  forms,  31. 

Plant  diseases,  discussion  of,  248  con- 
trol of,  214. 

Plant-food,  chapter  on,  60;  amount  of, 
in  soils,  113;  deficiency  in  soils,  63; 
elements  required,  60;  how  taken  up, 
64,  66,  67;  sources  of,  61. 


Plant  lice,  life  history  of,  257;  contro 
of,  265. 

Plowing,  depth,  164;  spring  vs.  fall, 
163;  sub-soiling,  165. 

Plums,  black  knot  of,  251;  brown-rot 
of,  252;  danger  in  spraying,  262; 
propagation  of,  42,  44,  45. 

Plymouth  Rock  hens,  364. 

Poland-China  hogs,  358,  359,  360. 

Polled  Durham  cattle,  325. 

Poplars,  propagation  of,  41. 

Population  of  the  United  States,  418. 

Potash.   See  Potassium. 

Potassium,  amount  in  soils,  113,  114; 
defined,  11;  effect  on  seed  formation, 
64;  ferro  cyanide,  264;  food  for  plants 
and  animals,  60,  62;  forms  of  in  fer- 
tilizers, 125;  in  manure,  136,  139, 
140,  141;  losses  from  manure,  141; 
muriate  of,  fertility  in,  408;  of  food 
recovered  in  manure,  138. 

Potassium  chlorid,  125. 

Potassium  nitrate,  fertility  in,  408. 

Potassium  sulfate,  125;  fertility  in,  408. 

Potato,  area  necessary  for  profit,  272; 
averages  for  ten-year  periods  in  the 
United  States,  acreage,  production, 
yield  per  acre,  total  value,  value  per 
acre,  value  per  bushel,  417;  breeding, 
21,  30;  composition  of,  62;  digestible 
food  per  acre,  160;  digestible  nutri- 
ents in,  410;  flea-beetle,  261;  fertiUty 
in,  408;  method  of  reproduction,  12; 
nativity  of,  154;  planting,  prepara- 
tion for,  40;  planting  rate,  405;  pro- 
pagation of,  39;  production  value  as 
feed,  412;  references,  35,  243,  270; 
rotations  with,  147,  274;  seed,  size 
to  cut,  39;  seed,  storage,  40;  seed, 
time  to  cut,  41;  spraying,  266;  value 
of,  155,  413.  417;  water  requirement, 
67;  weight  per  bushel,  406;  world's 
crop,  154. 

Potato-beetle,  control  oi,  259. 

Potato-blight   control  of,  254. 

Potato  scab,  control  of,  253. 

Potato,  sweet    See  Sweet  potato. 

Poultry,  chapter  on  363;  as  food, 
reference,  300;  aah  for,  286;  breeds 
of,  363;   feeding,    365;  feeding  stan- 


INDEX 


431 


dards,  409;  houses,  366;  importance 
of,  363;  manure,  amount  and  value 
per  year,  139;  products,  value  of, 
363,  413;  rate  of  depreciation,  387; 
references,  299,  371;  yearly  egg-pro- 
duction, 6,  7. 

Preserving  food,  methods  of,   172. 

Production  value  of  feeds,  289,  411. 

Propagation  of  plants,  chapter  on,  36. 
See,   also,   Cuttings,   Seeds,   Grafting. 

Protein,  composition  of,  69;  defined, 
283;  function  of,  in  feeds,  286;  ho'v 
determined,  283;  in  feeds,  283;  test 
for,  73. 

Pruning,  227,  230. 

Pupa,  defined,  256. 

Pumpkin,  digestible  nutrients  in,  410; 
fertility  in,  408;  seed  vitality,  405; 
seeding  rate,  405. 

Quince  roots  for  dwarf  pears,  47. 
Questions,  3,  31,  55,  71,  100,  148,  237, 
266,  280,  298,  317,  342,  361,  368,  348, 


Radish,  vitality  of  seeds,  405. 
Rambouillet  sheep,  351,  352. 
Rape,     fertilizer     requirements,      133; 

rate  of  seeding,  405;  references,  243; 

vitality  of  seeds,  405. 
Raspberries,  references,  243. 
Rations,  balanced,  292. 
Rats,  methods  of  destroying,  reference, 

271. 
Recessive  character,  defined,  16. 
Records.  See  Accounts. 
Red-Polled,  325,  328. 
Red  clover.   See  Clover. 
Red-top,    186;   low  lime   requirements, 

126;  seeding  rate,  186,  197,  405. 
References,  list  of,  401.    See  Collateral 

reading. 
Registry,  330;  advanced,  332. 
Rice,  fertility  in,  408;  references,  243; 

seeding  rate,  405;  weight  per  bushel, 

406;  world's  crop  of,  154. 
Rice  bran,  fertility  in,  409. 
Rice  polish,  fertiUty  in,  409. 
Road,  rules  of,  316. 
Root-borer,  clover,  193,  194. 


Root-crops,  why  not  more  grown,  160. 

Root-grafting,  45. 

Root-hairs,  64. 

Roots,  acidity  of,  66;   references,  242. 

Root-stocks,  36,  38. 

Rotation  of  crops,  chapter  on,  272;  and 
manure  supply,  140;  advantages  of, 
274;  defined,  273;  examples  of.  278; 
for  control  of  insects,  258;  references, 
280;   vs.   crop  diversification,   273. 

Roughage  compared  with  concentrates, 
189,  292,  411. 

Rubber,  exports  and  imports,  415. 

Rusts,  254. 

Rye,  as  a  nurse  crop,  183;  averages  for 
ten-year  periods  in  United  States, 
acreage,  production,  yield  per  acre, 
total  value,  value  per  bushel,  416; 
digestible  nutrients  in,  410;  fertility  in, 
409  ;  green  -  manure,  147  ;  planting 
depth,  168;  production  value  as  feed, 
412;  seed  vitality,  405;  seeding  rate, 
405;  weight  per  bushel,  406;  weight 
per  quart,  413;  worlds'  crop  of,  154. 

Rye-bran,  digestible  nutrients  in,  410; 
fertility  in,  409;  production  value  as 
feed,  412;  weight  per  quart,  413. 

Rye-meal,  weight  per  quart,  413. 

Ry«  straw,  digestible  nutrients  in,  410; 
fertihty  in,  409;  production  value  as 
feed,  412. 

Saddler,  307,  308. 

Salsify,  seed  vitality,  405. 

Salt  as  a  fertiUzer,  115. 

Saw-dust  as  bedding,  138. 

San  Jos^  scale,  control  of,  259,  264. 

Score  card  for  cattle,  242,  243;  corn,  238; 
farms,  385;  horses,  319. 

Seed,  adaptation  to  climate,  9;  change 
of,  9;  analysis,  51;  effect  of  size  and 
weight  on  crop,  53;  germination  tests, 
49,  51;  importation  of  low  grade,  55; 
low  vs.  high  grade,  52;  nature  of, 
47;  purity  tests,  52;  storage  of,  54; 
vitality,  table  of,  405. 

Seeding,  rates  per  acre,  405. 

Selection,  artificial,  10;  characters  to 
consider,  21;  importance  of,  21;  nat- 
ural, 7. 


432 


INDEX 


Self-fertilization,  12. 

Septic  tank,  393. 

Sessile,  defined,  37. 

Sewer  system  for  farm,  391 . 

Sexual  reproduction,  12. 

Shade  trees,  138. 

Shavings  as  bedding,  138. 

Sheep,  chapter  on,  351;  averages  for 
ten-year  periods  in  the  United  States, 
total  number,  total  value,  value  per 
head,  418;  breeds  of,  351;  composi- 
tion of,  285;  cottonseed  for,  212; 
feeding  standards,  409;  fertilizing 
value  of  feed  recovered  in  manure, 
138;  manure,  amount  and  value  per 
year,  138,  139;  numbers  of,  357,  418; 
opportunities  in  raising,  355;  refer- 
ences, 299,  356;  silage  for,  176;  types 
of,  351;  values  of,  357.  418. 

Shorthorn  cattle,  325;  fat  in  milk,  of 
328;  origin  of  polled,  8. 

Shoulders,  care  of  sore,  313. 

Shrinkage  of  products,  reference,   242. 

Shropshire  sheep,  351,  353. 

Shrubs,  389. 

Silage,  materials  for,  172.  See  Corn 
silage. 

Silicon  as  food  for  plants  and  animals, 
60,  62. 

Silk,  exports  and  imports,  414. 

Silo,  171,  173;  cost  of  filling,  reference, 
242;  principle  of,  172. 

Smut,  control  of,  254. 

Sodium,  food  for  plants  and  animals, 
60,   62. 

Sodium  nitrate.  See  Nitrate  of  soda. 

Soils,  chapter  on,  75;  analysis,  physical, 
76;  analysis,  value  of  chemical,  113; 
best  kinds  of,  83,  375;  composition  of 
soils,  76;  defined,  75;  for  alfalfa,  190; 
clover,  193-195;  com,  78,  163;  cotton, 
78,  206;  grass,  78,  82,  183-188;  oats, 
78,  181;  tobacco,  82;  vegetables,  78, 
82;  wheat,  82, 180;  wood  lot,  223;  how 
formed,  109;  how  named,  78;  man- 
agement of  clay,  83;  plant  food  in, 
113,  114;  references,  108,  152;  rock 
particles  of,  76;  size  of  particles  and 
crop  adaptation,  78,  82;  size  of  par- 
ticles   and   water    capacity,    79,    80; 


warm  and  cold,  81;  water  capacity, 
determination  of,  105;  water  capacity 
of  clay  and  sand,  80.  See,  also,  Irri- 
gation and  Drainage. 

Soil  air,  importance  of,  94;  determina- 
tion of  the  amount  of,  103. 

Soil-bacteria.    See  Soil  organisms. 

Soil  fertility,  chapter  on,  109;  amount 
in  soils,  113;  causes  of  loss  of.  111; 
how  developed,  104;  how  lost,  109; 
importance  of  grass,  120;  importance 
of  legumes,  116. 

Soil  humus,  amount  in  soils,  96;  im- 
portance of,  95. 

Soil  organisms,  116-122. 

Soil  particles,  effect  on  labor,  82;  floc- 
culation  of,  83;  importance  of  size  of, 
79-84;    relation   to   crop  adaptation, 

78,  82;    relation   to   water   capacity, 

79,  80;  separation  of,  76;  size  of  and 
temperature,  81  ;  surface  area  per 
cubic  foot,  80. 

Soil  water,  best  amount  of,  91;  com- 
position of,  84;  conserved  by  early 
plowing,  164;  conservation  of,  85; 
how  amount  is  determined,  72; 
importance  of,  84;  movement  of,  85. 

Sorghum,  references,  243. 

South  Carolina  rock,  123. 

Southdown  sheep,  351,  354. 

Soy-bean,  digestible  nutrients  in,  410; 
fertiUty  in,  409;  inoculation,  118,  192; 
lime  requirement,  126;  references, 
243;  seed  vitality,  405. 

Soy-bean  hay,  productive  value  as  feed, 
411. 

Soy-bean  straw,  fertility  in,  409. 

Spores,  36,  251. 

Sports,  8. 

Spraying,  for  insects  and  diseases,  258; 
for  mustard,  246;  profits,  from  229; 
references,  270. 

Squash,  seed  vitaUty,  405. 

Stamen,  defined,  11. 

Standardized  milk,  336. 

Starch  as  food,  286;  composition  of,  68; 
how  formed,  68;  translocation  of,  68. 

Stigma,  defined,  11. 

Stolon,  defined,  38. 

Stomata,  67. 


INDEX 


433 


Stooling,  12. 

Storage  reservoirs,  89. 

Stover.  See  Corn. 

Strawberries,  references,  243. 

Style,  defined,  11. 

Subsoiling,  165. 

S  ffolk  hogs,  358,  360. 

Suffolk  Punch  horses,  307. 

Sugar,  as  food,  286;  exports  and  im- 
ports, 415;  references,  300. 

Sugar-beet,  breeding,  24;  breeding 
references,  35;  digestible  nutrients 
in,  410;  fertility  in,  408;  per  cent  of 
sugar,  24;  total  production,  417; 
references,  243;  seeding  rate,  405. 

Sugar-beet  leaves,  digestible  nutrients 
in,  410. 

Sugar-beet  molasses,  digestible  nutri- 
ents in,  410. 

Sugar-beet  pulp,  digestible  nutrients 
in,  411. 

Sugar-cane,  total  production,  417;  value 
of  crop,  413. 

Sugar  maple,  references,  243. 

Sulfate  of  ammonia.  See  Ammonium 
sulfate. 

Sulfate  of  potash,  125. 

Sulfur,  food  for  plants  and  animals, 
60,  62. 

Sweet  potatoes,  method  of  reproduction, 
12;  propagation  of,  39;  references, 
243;  planting  rate,  405;  value  of  crop, 
413;  weight  per  bushel,  406. 

Swine.  See  Hogs. 

Tamworth  hogs,  358,  360. 

Tankage,  as  a  fertilizer,  123;  for  hogs, 
286. 

Tea,  exports  and  imports,  415. 

Temperature  of  soils,  81,  82. 

Texas  fever,  341. 

Therm,  defined,  291. 

Thomas  slag,  124. 

Thoroughbred,  307. 

Tile  drains.  See  Drainage. 

Tillage  of  orchards,  228. 

Timothy,  184;  breeding,  24;  composi- 
tion of,  63,  284;  digestibiUty  of,  287; 
290,  291:  digestible  food  per  acre,  189; 
digestible  nutrients  in,    411;  fertility 


in,  409;  fertilizer  requirements,  132; 
for  horses,  312;  lime  requirement,  126; 
maintenance  value,  290,  291;  pro- 
duction value  as  feed,  291,  411;  seed 
vitality,  405;  seeding  rate,  185;  196, 
197,  405;  time  to  cut,  71,  183;  varia- 
tion in,  24;  weight  per  bushel,  406. 

Toad,  usefulness  of,  reference,  271. 

Tobacco,  exports  and  imports,  415; 
references,  34,  242,  271;  soils  for, 
82;  value  of  crop,  155,  413. 

Tobacco  stems,  fertility  in,  409. 

Tomatoes,  weight  per  bushel,  406; 
references,  243. 

Top-grafting,  46. 

Toxic  substances,  276. 

Trees,  how  to  plant,  227;  shade,  233; 
treatment  of  wounds,  231. 

Trotting  horse,  307,  308. 

Tuber,  defined,  39. 

Tuberculin,  340. 

Tuberculosis,  337. 

Turkeys,  reference,  371. 

Turnips,  composition  of,  63;  digestible 
nutrients  in,  411;  fertility  in,  409; 
production  value  as  feed,  412;  seed 
vitality,  405;  seeding  rate,  405; 
soft  rot  of,  250. 

Variation,   5;    how   increased,    21;    law 

of,  5. 
Vegetables,  farm  garden,  234;  soils  for 

82. 
Verbena,  propagation  of,  41. 
Vetch,  seeding  rate,  405. 
Victoria  hogs,  358,  359,  360. 
Vitality  of  seeds,  table  of,  405. 

Walks,  control  of  weeds  in,  247. 

Water,  amount  in  plants,  62,  63;  as  a 
plant  food,  61;  function  in  feeds,  285; 
in  feeds,  282;  in  feeds,  how  deter- 
mined, 282;  requirement  of  different 
crops,  67.    See,  also.  Soil  water. 

Watermelon,  lime  requirement,  126; 
vitality  of  seeds,  405. 

Water  supply,  391. 

Weeder,  169. 

Weeds,  control  of,  70,  169,  245,  274; 
controlled  by  fertilizers,  190;  defined. 


BB 


434 


INDEX 


244;  in  pastures,  197;  in  walks,  247; 
reference,  270;  spraying  for,  246; 
value  of,  244. 

Weights  per  bushel,  406. 

Wheat,  discussion  of,  178;  amount  ex- 
ported, 177;  as  a  nurse  crop,  183; 
averages  for  ten-year  periods  in  the 
United  States,  acreage,  production, 
yield  per  acre,  total  value,  value  per 
acre,  value  per  bushel,  416;  climate 
for,  180;  composition  of,  179;  cul- 
ture, 180;  digestible  food  per  acre, 
160;  digestible  nutrients,  in  411; 
Durum,  179;  effect  of  continuous  cul- 
ture, 110,  121,  170;  effect  of  rotation 
on,  277;  exports  and  imports,  414; 
fertility  in,  409 ;  fertility  require- 
ments, 132,  134 ;  fertility  removed 
by,  113;  ground,  weight  per  quart, 
413;  original  form  of,  10;  planting 
depth,  168;  production  value  as  feed, 
412;  references,  270;  rotations  with 
278,  279;  seed  vitality,  405;  seed- 
ing, 181;  seeding  rate,  405;  soil  for, 
82,  180;  time  to  grow  one  bushel,  301; 
Turkish  Red,  179;  types  and  varie- 
ties, 179;  uses  of,  178;  value  of  crop, 
413;  value  of  United  States  crop, 
155,  416;  weight  per  bushel,  406; 
weight  per  quart,  413;  world's  crop, 


154,  178;  yields  with  heavy  and  light 
seeds,    54. 

Wheat  bran,  digestibility  of,  287; 
digestible  nutrients  in,  411;  fertility 
in,  409;  laxative  properties,  reference, 
300;  production  value  as  feed,  412; 
weight  per  quart,  413. 

Wheat  middlings,  digestible  nutrients 
in,  411;  fertility  in,  409;  weight  per 
quart,  413. 

Wheat  straw,  digestibility  of,  287; 
digestible  nutrients  in,  411;  fertility 
in,  409;  production  value  as  feed,  412. 

Whey,  digestible  nutrients  in,  410. 

Willow,  basket,  references,  243;  propa- 
gation of,  41. 

Wood,  increasing  need  of,  218. 

Wood-ashes,  125. 

Wood  crop,  216. 

Wood-lots,  management  of,  222;  profits 
from,  222;  what  to  plant,  226;  where 
to  plant,  224. 

Wool,  351,  353;  exports  and  imports, 
414.;  value  of,  413 

Work  report.   See  Accounts. 

Wyandotte  chickens,  364. 

Yorkshire  hogs,  358,  360. 
Zoology,  relation  to  agriculture,  1. 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF  AMERICAN 
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H.  Snyder's  Soils  and  Fertilizers.  Third  edition  ...  1  25  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Principles  of  Agriculture 1  25  ne* 

W.  C.  Welborn's  Elements  of  Agriculture;  Southern 

and  Western 75  net 

J.  F.  Duggar's  Agriculture  for  Southern  Schools  .   .  75  net 

On  Plant  Diseases,  etc. 

George  Massee's  Plant  Diseases 1  60  net 

J.  G.  Lipman'a  Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life  .  1  50  net 

E.  C.  Lodeman's  The  Spraying  of  Plants 1  25  net 

H.  M.  Ward's  Disease  in  Plants  (English) 1  60  net 

A.  S.  Packard's  A  Text-book  on  Entomology  ....  4  50  net 

On  Production  of  New  Plants 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Plant-Breeding 1  25  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Survival  of  the  Unlike 2  00  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Evolution  of  our  Native  Fruits   .  2  00  net 

W.  S.  Harwood's  New  Creations  in  Plant  Life    ...  1  75  net 

On  Garden  Making 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Practical  Garden-Book 1  00  net 

L.  H  Bailey's  Garden-Making 1  50  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Vegetable-Gardening 1  50  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Horticulturist's  Rule  Book 76  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Forcing-Book 1  25  net 

A.  French's  Book  of  Vegetables  ^ I  76  ne> 


BOOKS"  ON  AGRICULTURE,  continued 
On  Frnlt-growing,  etc. 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Nursery-Book $1  50  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Fruit-growing 1  50  nel 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Pruning-Book 1  60  net 

F.  W.  Card's  Bush  Fruits 1  50  net 

On  the  Care  of  Live  Stock 

Nelson  S.  Mayo's  The  Diseases  of  Animals 1  50  net 

W.  H.  Jordan's  The  Feeding  of  Animals 1  50  net 

I.  P.  Roberts'  The  Horse 1  25  net 

George  C.  Watson's  Farm  Poultry 1  50  net 

On  Dairy  Work 

Henry  H.  Wing's  Milk  and  Its  Products 1  50  net 

C.  M.  Aikman's  Milk 1  25  net 

Harry  Snyder's  Dairy  Chemistry 1  00  net 

W.   D.   Frost's    Laboratory  Guide   in  Elementary 

Bacteriology 1  60  net 

I.  P.  Sheldon's  The  Farm  and  the  Dairy 1  00  net 

On  Economics  and  Organization 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  State  and  the  Farmer 1  25  net 

Henry  C.  Taylor's  Agricultural  Economics 1  25  net 

I.  P.  Roberts'  The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook   .   .  1  25  net 

George  T.  Fairchild's  Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare  .   .  1  25  net 

S.  E.  Sparling's  Business  Organization 1  25  net 

In  the  Citizen's  Library.  Includes  a  chapter  on  Fanning. 

Kate  V.  St.  Maur's  A  Self- Supporting  Home      ...  1  75  net 

Kate  V.  St.  Maur's  The  Earth's  Bounty 1  75  net 

On  Everything  Agricultural 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture: 
Vol.  1.  Farms,  Climates,  and  Soils. 
Vol.  II.    Farm  Crops. 
Vol.  III.    Farm  Animals. 
Vol.  IV.    The  Farm  and  the  Community. 
Price  of  sets:  Cloth,  $20  net;  half-morocco,  $32  net. 


For  further  information  as  to  any  of  the  above, 
address  the  publishers 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

64-66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


FOR  THE  STUDENT  OF  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISYRH 

By  HARRY   SNYDER,  B.S. 

Professor  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  University  of  Minnesota,  and  Chemist  J 

of  the  Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  ■ 

The  Chemistry  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life      ^ 

Illustrated.     Cloth.    12mo.    406  pages.    $1.25 ;  by  mail,  $1.35. 

"The  language  is,  as  it  should  be.  plain  and  simple,  free  from  all  needle«*s 
technicality,  and  the  story  thus  told  is  of  absorbing  interest  to  every  one, 
man  or  woman,  boy  or  girl,  who  takes  an  intelligent  interest  in  farm  life." 
^The  New  England  Farmer. 

"Although  the  book  is  highly  technical,  it  is  put  in  popular  form  and  mad« 
comprehensible  from  the  standpoint  of  the  farmer;  it  deals  largely  with 
those  questions  which  arise  in  his  experience,  and  will  prove  an  invaluable 
aid  in  countless  directions."— Tfte  Farmer's  Voice. 

Dairy  Chemistry 

Illustrated.  190  pages.  $1  net;  by  mail,  f  1.10. 
"The  book  is  a  valuable  one  which  any  dairy  farmer,  or,  indeed,  any  one 
handling  stock,  may  read  with  profit."— iZurai  New  Yorker. 

Soils  and  Fertilizers 

Third  Edition.    Illustrated.    $1.25  net;  by  mail,  $1.38 

A  book  which  present.s  in  a  concise  form  the  principles  of  soil  fer- 
tility and  discusses  all  of  the  topics  relating  to  soils  as  outlined  by 
the  Committee  on  Methods  of  Teaching  Agriculture.  It  contains 
350  pages,  with  illustrations,  and  treats  of  a  great  variety  of  sub- 
jects, such  as  Physical  Properties  of  Soils;  Geological  Formation, 
etc.;  Nitrogen  of  the  Soil  and  Air;  Farm  Manures;  Commercial 
Fertilizers,  several  chapters;  Rotation  of  Crops;  Preparation  of 
Soil  for  Crops,  etc. 


THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

64-66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


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